ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am deeply indebted to my Supervisor Dr. Md. Ahsan Ali, Professor Department of Anthropology University of Dhaka, for his suggestions, guidance comments, patient hearing and continuous concern and encouragement throughout my research.
I am grateful to Nasima Sultana, Associate Professor and chairman, Department of Anthropologyt, University of Dhaka. I am also grateful to Dr. Shahed Hasan, Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Dhaka, who has kindly directions in collecting information on the subject.
I am grateful to Professor Dr. Arefin, Professor, Dr. Anwar Ullah Chawdury, Professor Dr. Jahidul Islam and all teachers of anthropology depertment, University of Dhaka. Special thanks are due to my friends Shahid, Mamun, Asad, Riya, Chaiti, Nabila, Nur E Alom, Tarek, Sobuj, Osman and my younger brother Saikot & Kakon.
Finally I express my deepest gratitude to my parents for their perpetual inspiration and financial support to my education.
Md. Uzzal Molla
Class: MSS
Session: 2008-2009
Class Roll: 271
Dept. of Anthropology
University of Dhaka
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Proposal of the Study 2
1.2 Objective of the Study 3
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4
2.1. Methodology of the Research: 4
2.1.1 Locating Study Area: 4
2.1.2 Selecting Sources of Data Collection: 4
2.1.3 Choosing Methods of Data Collection from the Primary Sources: 5
2.1.4 Selection Criteria: 9
2.1.5 Respondent selection: 9
2.1.6. Tools for data collection: 10
2.1.7 Respondents’ profile: 10
2.2 Rationale of the study 12
CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE 13
3.1 Definitions of Indigenous Knowledge: 13
3.2 Features of Indigenous Knowledge: 14
3.3 Types of Indigenous knowledge: 15
3.4 Historical Approaches of Indigenous knowledge: 16
3.5 Scope of Indigenous knowledge: 17
3.6 Significance of Indigenous knowledge: 18
3.7 Indigenous Knowledge System Vs Scientific Knowledge System: 18
3.8 Transmission of Indigenous knowledge: 20
3.9 Limitations of indigenous knowledge: 20
3.10 Indigenous knowledge in Bangladesh: 21
3.11 Literature Review 21
3.12 Limitation of the Study 25
CHAPTER 4: PROFILE FO THE STUDY AREA 28
4.1. Historical Background: 28
4.2 Geographical features: 29
4.3 Biogeography Settings: 29
4.4 Habitat Pattern: 30
4.5 Settlement Pattern: 30
4.6 Demographic Features of Char land: 31
4.7 Beliefs, Rituals and Cultural Practice: 34
4.8 Festivals: 35
CHAPTER 5: MAN AND LIFE IN CHAR 36
5.1 Disaster: 36
5.2 Observations About Historic Floods 36
5.3 Factors Contributing To Flooding Propensity 37
5.4 Disasters In Bangladesh: 41
5.5 Flood: 44
5.6 Flood Affected Sectors & damages in Medhya Charramani Mohan 45
CHAPTER 6: INDIGENOUS PERCEPTION AND PREDICTION 46
6.1 Local Strategies To Predict Hazard: 46
6.2 Which Are Indigenous Knowledge: 47
6.3 Which Are Not Indigenous Knowledge: 49
6.4 Transferability Of IK and practices 49
6.4.1 Easily transferable Iks: 49
6.4.2 Not easily transferable: 50
6.4.3 Five best practices: 51
CHAPTER 7: RISK AND COPING STRATEGIES 56
7.1 The main hazard of the study area: 56
7.2 Flood risk and coping strategies for risk reduction: 56
7.3 Flood risk on life: 56
7.3.1. Strategies for risk reduction of life: 56
7.3.2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 57
7.4 Risk on habitants: 57
7.4.1 Coping strategies for risk reduction: 57
7.4. 2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 57
7.5 Risk on food security: 57
7.5.1 Coping strategies for risk reduction: 57
7.5.2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 58
7.6 Risk for social and educational institutions: 58
7.6.1 Coping strategies for risk reduction: 58
7.6.2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 58
7.7 Risk on livelihood: 58
7.7.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction: 59
7.7.2 Strategies for immediate risk reduction: 59
7.7.3 Effectiveness of these techniques: 59
7.7.4 Strategies for long term rick reduction: 59
7.7.5 Effectiveness of these techniques: 59
7.8 Extra risk for women: 59
7.8.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction: 59
7.8.2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 60
7.9 Extra risk for children: 60
7.9.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction: 60
7.9.2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 60
7.10 Extra risk for elders and the persons with disability: 60
7.10.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction: 60
7.10.2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 60
7.11 Risk on health: 61
7.11.1 Coping strategy for flood risk reduction: 61
7.11.2 Effectiveness of this technique: 61
7.12 Risk on drinking water: 61
7.12.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction: 61
7.12.2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 61
7.13. Risk on sanitation: 61
7.13.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction: 61
7.13.2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 62
7.14 Risk on communication: 62
7.14.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction: 62
7.14.2 Effectiveness of these techniques: 62
7.15 Others help to cope with flood: 62
CHAPTER 8: COPING WITH FLOOD 63
8.1 Social Coping with Flood: 63
8.2 Economic coping with flood: 64
8.3 Occupational Coping with Flood: 66
8.4 Material and Technological copping with Flood: 69
8.5 Peoples Response to the Flood Centre: 70
CHAPTER 9: SUMMARY & CONCLUSION 71
GLOSSARY 74
REFERENCES & BIBLIOGRAPHY 75
APPENDIX 79
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
THE PROLEGOMENON
In the contemporary world global warming, industrial pollution, industrial wastes are some emerging issues. As a cause of these issues natural disaster is a common phenomenon. Most of the developed countries face these great environmental challenges with efficient scientific technologies. But in most of the underdeveloped and developing countries, people are helpless in coping with these natural calamities. Government initiatives are not plentiful. People living in the vulnerable areas are the worst victim of these environmental imbalances. To survive peoples are now with their own knowledge, through generations, develop some kinds coping strategies in facing natural disaster. At present, this indigenous knowledge is now successfully engaged to the overall development of human ecology of whole society. Bangladesh is situated in one of the most disaster prone region of the world. Every year it is hit by various catastrophic disasters like Cyclone, Flood, Tornado, and Drought etc.
The austerity of disaster in every region of the country is not identical. Some of the regions are recurrently jeopardized by natural calamities especially the monsoon flood area of the northern part of Bangladesh. The marginal people have developed a predicting knowledge and unique way of coping strategies to cope with natural disasters especially flood. The indigenous knowledge systems of flood prone area people transmitted through oral tradition helps them to reduce risk of vulnerability. The flood prone area people mostly live in the remote areas, especially in detached land from mainland. Like others flood prone of Bangladesh, the people of my study area live in the remote and vulnerable area, it is hardly possible for them to get the facilities of the modern technology of disaster management. For this reason, their indigenous predicting and coping techniques are very much related with their existence. The people the study area have developed a predicting knowledge and unique way of coping strategies to cope with the disaster of flood. The indigenous knowledge systems of the study area people transmitted through oral tradition helps them to reduce risk of flood disaster. The study area is situated in Umarpur union of Chawhali upozela of Madhhya Charramani Mohan. Some development agencies make a few people’s homestead on a raised platform and conduce other activities but these are not sufficient enough for the development and all don’t get these facilities. Actually, the people of the study area adopt some local strategies for their existence these help them to cope with flood and this indigenous knowledge work as the key of their development. By practicing indigenous knowledge, they reduce the flood disaster risk.
1.1 Proposal of the Study
Bangladesh is situated in one of the most disaster prone region of the world. Every year it is hit by various catastrophic disasters like Flood, cyclone,, Tornado, and Drought etc. The austerity of disaster in every region of the country is not identical. Some of the regions are recurrently jeopardized by natural calamities especially the char lands of the northern part of Bangladesh. Indigenous knowledge (IK) is, broadly speaking the knowledge used by local people to make a living in a particular environment. Terms used in the field of sustainable development to designate this concept include indigenous technical knowledge, traditional environmental knowledge, rural knowledge, local knowledge and farmer’s or pastoralist’s knowledge. Generally speaking, such knowledge evolves in the local environment, so that it is specifically adapted to the requirements of local people and conditions. The marginal people have developed a predicting knowledge and unique way of coping strategies to cope with natural disasters especially flood.
The indigenous knowledge systems of char dwellers transmitted through oral tradition helps them to reduce risk of vulnerability. In this thesis I will examine the coping patterns based on the age-old indigenous knowledge and practices of the char-dwellers in the face of flood. It is very important because in a traditional way mostly the planners and scholars (the people of centre) of development works and disaster management ignore experiences and coping techniques of this marginal people, the people of coastal areas of Bangladesh.
1.2 Objective of the Study
In the last few years there has been renewed worldwide interest in the use of indigenous knowledge in many different sectors. However, it is important to see that the flow of information is not a one-way affair as this is a form of exploitation. Rather the information should flow from the community to the collector and back again. Thus my study was directed towards the following objectives:
Broad Objective:
To document indigenous predicating knowledge on flood and coping strategies in flood management.
Specific Objectives:
There were some specific objectives of this research, such as,
1. To bring out indigenous flood forecasting knowledge and examine its effectiveness.
2. To know char dweller’s perception regarding flood.
3. To reveal indigenous predicating indicators of flood.
4. To explore indigenous coping techniques.
5. To bring out the changing trends of coping techniques through generations.
6. To explore scientific basis of indigenous predicting indicators, and their co-existence.
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study has been designed with a view to having an intrinsic notion about the indigenous knowledge and coping techniques of disaster management, especially flood management. The methodological sequences for this research are given below:
2.1. Methodology of the Research:
2.1.1 Locating Study Area:
Selection of the Study Area:
On the basis of information provided by the daily newspapers, three areas were tentatively selected previously considering their intensity of flood. Finally, the Madhya Charramani Mohan, the coastal side of Lakshmipur, was selected as the study area. As this was one of the most disaster prone areas for flood, so the study was concentrated here.
Selection Criteria:
Selection of the study area was based on following criteria:
a) This area was having the experience of flood repeatedly for long time.
b) This area experience at least two or three floods in a year.
c) The communication of this area is very tough. It takes almost one day to go to this area. This isolation from mainland helped them to maintain their unique life style to cope with flood and determine indigenous coping strategies.
2.1.2 Selecting Sources of Data Collection:
In this research data were collected from different sources. But all these sources can be grouped into two sources:
Primary Sources: The data collected from the Madhya Charramani Mohan through interviews, questionnaires, personal censuses and observations, case studies, life histories and oral histories were under this category. Information or data were collected from the respondents directly considering individuals and households as units.
Secondary Sources: Different books, newspapers, periodicals, research works, scientific and research journals, FAP reports, World Bank reports, Disaster Management Ministry reports and several other reports of development agencies were taken as secondary sources of information to know the state-of-the-Art. These were considered as indirect or secondary sources in the present research work.
2.1.3 Choosing Methods of Data Collection from the Primary Sources:
There are basically three methods of collecting indigenous information: interviews, observations and guided field walks. But different other methods and strategies were applied in gathering data keeping in mind the objectives of the work and condition of the field. The entire fieldwork has been divided in following phases according to tile intensity of the work:
First Phase:
Guided field walk: In the first phase guided field walk was done. This involves a tour through the wilderness by the interviewer and the interviewee. This method often brings to light things which do not normally emerge from the other two methods. It also enables the researcher to note other important points, such as settlement pattern, erosion effected sites.
Participant Observation: Participant observation is both an overall approach to inquiry and data gathering method. Participation observation is to some degree an essential element of all qualitative studies. As its name reveals, participant observation demand first hand involvement in the social world chosen for study. Immersion in the setting allows the researcher to hear, see and begin to experience reality as the participants do. Thus, by this intensive method I spent a considerable amount of time in the setting, learning about daily life.
Observation and rapport building: Observation entails the systematic noting and recording of events, behaviors, and artifacts in the social setting chosen for study. Observation is the foundation of this anthropological research. Yet it is the least well-defined methodological component.
Attempts were made to build up rapport with the people of the village. At this stage outmost endeavor was exerted to become intimate with rural people through gossiping, nodding, exchanging greetings, general discussion etc. At the same time wide observation was made. Attempt was made to gain an overall idea about the area on its production processes, economic condition, social, cultural and environmental condition.
Second Phase:
Key Informant Technique: As a main strategy for collection of data the key informant technique was taken due to following reasons:
1. As an aid to be familiarized with people and the environment and also as a strategy for deep observation.
2. To understand local linguistic account, culture, relationships through emic perspective.
3. To be acquainted rapidly with the study area.
4. To acquire in-depth information within relatively shorter time.
Four key informants were selected in the study. In doing so the following criteria were considered:
1. People who had good idea about the char dwellers.
2. People who had good notion about their involvement in various activities including the problem under examination.
3. People who were acceptable as philanthropic.
4. People who were residing in the area for a long time.
Interviewing:
Unstructured Interview: The first stage as mentioned was rapport building. This unstructured interview was used as a great aid in the second stage. Unstructured interviews are base on a clear plan that a researcher keep constantly in mind, but they are also characterized by a minimum of control over the informant’s responses. The idea is to get people to “open up’’ and let them express themselves in their own terms, and at their own pace. Such kind of informal sittings with the informants helped in establishing a kind of intimacy, in turn helped to come to the discussion on disaster management. In some cases the data so collected were abandoned. In some cases twice or thrice unstructured interview with single person was arranged to achieve reliable information. Maximum data were collected through this method for the whole study. There are several disadvantages attached to this method, as it is time-consuming and tiring, especially for older people. There was a check list with this unstructured interview.
Semi-structured Interview: Semi-structured interviewing is based on the use of an interview guide. This is a written list of questions and topics that need to be covered in a particular order. The interviewer maintains discretion to follow leads, but the interview guide is a set of clear instructions. Interview guides are built up from informal and unstructured interview data. In this research, semi-structured interviewing was very much useful because I didn’t get more than one chance to interview someone.
Analysis and Construction of Case Studies:
For analyzing case data and constructing case studies the following three steps were followed:
Step 1 = Systematic Assembling of the Raw Data: These data consisted of all the pieces of information collected about the person or issue for which a case study was written.
Step 2 = Constructing a Case Record: This was a condensation of the raw data organizing, classifying and editing the raw data into a manageable and accessible package.
Step 3 = Writing a Narrative Case study: The case study was presented theoretically.
Unit of Research: The unit of data collection in the study was household. But in some cases an individual was also taken as the unit while analyzing the data. In the case of differences between two persons analytical unit was individual. In making comparative analysis of two regions the regions were taken as analytical unit.
Data Analysis:
Analysis of Interviews: In case of open-ended interviews, cross case study or cross interview analysis for each question was done. Then showing variations in answers to common questions to represent individual traits cross-case analysis was done.
Analysis of observations: In analyzing observations six options were followed as mentioned below:
Chronology- the study from the beginning to end.
Key Events- critical incidents in order of importance.
Various settings-various places, sites, locations.
People- people or group.
Process- decision making, communication, segregation.
Key Issues- how did participants change in their behavior, group formation.
Some Other Associated Research Technologies:
Field Jotting: A “Jot Book” was kept all the time and used to write when something was seen to be investigated later on. It was also used to take quick notes.
Log: The log was kept for running account of time and money planning of the study.
Taking Field Notes: It was to record the result of informal, intensive and productive unstructured and open-ended interviews.
Camera and Recorder: Camera and recorder was used to keep sequences during conversation. Such tools are required by a researcher to keep constant account in the field.
Diary: The day-to-day experiences and observational notes were presented in a personal diary. It chronicled how researcher felt his relations with the people in the field.
2.1.4 Selection Criteria:
Selection of the study union was based on following criteria:
1. Affected wards of unions.
2. Isolated wards of unions.
3. The nature of affectedness.
4. Access to early warning.
5. Rate of previous losses and damage.
Selection of the study community was based on following criteria:
1. Nature of affectedness.
2. Isolation from the mainland.
3. Rate of previous losses and damage.
4. Socio- economic condition.
5. Access to early warning.
2.1.5 Respondent selection:
There were sixty two respondents selected for conducting four FGD. One FGD was conducted with male where fifteen respondents participated. In male group, there participated seven people who are above 55, four middle aged people who are 36-55, two youth who are 19-35 and two disabled people. One FGD was conducted with female group where fifteen respondents participated. In female group, there participated six elder who are above 50, five middle aged female who are 31-50, two youth who are 19-30 and two disabled people. Another FGD was conducted with farmer (main occupational group) where sixteen respondents participated. In farmer group, there participated four elder male, four elder female, two middle aged male, two middle aged female, two youth male and two youth female whose age limit like male and female group. And the other FGD was conducted with peasant come small businessmen (second occupational group) where also sixteen respondents participated like farmer group.
2.1.6. Tools for data collection:
Pen: Pen was used to write data.
Field Jotting: A “Jot Book” was kept all the time and used to write when something was seen to be investigated later on. It was also used to take quick notes.
Taking Field Notes: It was to record the result of informal, intensive and productive unstructured and open-ended interviews.
Camera and mobile: Camera and mobile were used to photography and record keep sequences during conversation. Such tools are required by a researcher to keep constant account in the field.
Diary: The day-to-day experiences and observational notes were presented in a personal diary. It chronicled how researcher felt his relations with the people in the field.
2.1.7 Respondents’ profile:
Sixty two respondents participated in four FGD. Their main occupation is farming. Some of them are peasant come small businessmen who basically cultivate crops and for getting supplementary income, they merchandize in hat-bazaar. Most of the respondents live under poverty line. Their category, sex, age, education and occupation are described in below tables.
Table 01- category
Category Frequency Percentage
Elder people 29 47% (approximately )
Middle age people 16 26% (approximately )
Youth people 13 21% (approximately )
People with disability 04 06% (approximately )
total 62 100%
Table 02- age limit of category
Category Male Female
Elder 56 and above 51 and above
Middle aged people 36-55 31-50
Youth people 19- 35 19-30
Disabled people 18 and above 18 and above
Table 03- sex
Sex frequency percentage
Male 31 50%
Female 31 50%
total 62 100%
Table 04- age
Age Group Frequency Percentage
21-30 11 18% (approximately )
31-40 14 23% (approximately )
41-50 06 10% (approximately )
51-60 19 30% (approximately )
61-above 12 19% (approximately )
total 62 100%
Table 05-education
Education Frequency Percentage
Illiterate 11 18% (approximately )
Able to sign only 22 35% (approximately )
Primary 13 21% (approximately )
Junior secondary 09 14% (approximately )
Secondary 01 02% (approximately )
Higher secondary 03 05% (approximately )
Graduate and post graduate 03 05% (approximately )
Total 62 100%
Table 06-occupation
Occupation Frequency Percentage
Farmer 25 40%(approximately )
Housewife 11 18%(approximately )
Housewife with disability 02 03%(approximately )
Farmer with disability 02 03%(approximately )
Businessmen(small and peasant come) 18 29%(approximately )
Student 01 02%(approximately )
Teacher 01 02%(approximately )
Tailor 01 02%(approximately )
Imam (mosque) 01 02%(approximately )
Total 62 100%
2.2 Rationale of the study
Primarily it should be mentioned that no intensive and qualitative research has so far been conducted on indigenous coping strategies. There is hardly any scientific study on this topic. The perception study of people has always a trivial part of social science research. All hard-core scientists denied the very existence of indigenous knowledge. Researcher, planners, government officials put this matter on shelves detaching people’s perception from the planning agenda.
Local people have lived with their environment and adapted to it over hundreds of years and know more about their lifestyles than those looking in from the outside ever could. It would be foolish not to use this wealth of knowledge when instigating development programs.
The need for the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the development process to achieve sustainability is gaining recognition. Its importance in Bangladesh has not been overlooked and interest in indigenous knowledge is growing, both in the realms of academia and development agencies.
As these char dwellers mostly live in the remote areas, especially in detached land from mainland, it is hardly possible for them to get the facilities of the modern technology of disaster management. For this reason, their indigenous predicting and coping techniques are very much related with their existence. So the study of their coping techniques deserves prime attention.
This research will identify the people’s perception of flood. It will unravel the predictive indicator of flood and their response to it, which encompasses their life style. It will draw attention of academicians as well as policy makers suggesting alternative perceptions and predictive indicator to incorporate these ideas in research as well as in plans.
CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE
A HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT OF KNOWLEDGE
Indigenous knowledge (IK) is, broadly speaking the knowledge used by local people to make a living in a particular environment. Terms used in the field of sustainable development to designate this concept include indigenous technical knowledge, traditional environmental knowledge, rural knowledge, local knowledge and farmer’s or pastoralist’s knowledge. Generally speaking, such knowledge evolves in the local environment, so that it is specifically adapted to the requirements of local people and conditions. It is also creative and experimental, constantly incorporating outside influences and inside innovations to meet new conditions. It is usually a mistake to think of indigenous knowledge as “old-fashioned’’, ‘’backwards; static’’ or “unchanging”.
In this research, I am very much concerned about indigenous knowledge of environment or specifically about traditional environmental knowledge. Traditional environmental knowledge can generally be defined as a body of knowledge built up by a group of people through generations of living in close contact with nature. It includes a system of classification, a set of empirical observations about the local environment and a system of self-management that govern resource use. The quantity and quality of traditional environmental knowledge varies among community members, depending upon gender, age, social status, intellectual capability, and profession (hunter, spiritual leader, healer, etc). With its roots firmly in the past, traditional environmental knowledge is both cumulative and dynamic, building upon the experience of earlier generations and adapting to the new technological and socioeconomic changes of the present.
3.1 Definitions of Indigenous Knowledge:
Several scholars have defined indigenous knowledge in different ways:
a) Brush and Stabinsky offered two definitions of indigenous knowledge. The one is “the systematic information that remains in the informal sector, usually, unwritten and preserved in oral tradition rather than texts. Indigenous knowledge is culture-specific”. The other, which is narrower, refers to “the knowledge system of indigenous people and minority cultures’’.
b) Paul Sillitoe said “local knowledge in development context may relate to the knowledge held collectively by a population informing the interpretation of the world. This is the case in any domain as is in the current development project pertaining to natural resource management. Local knowledge is considered to be a socio-cultural tradition in other words a culturally related understanding inculcated into individuals from birth which structures their recognition and perception of environment.’’ (Indigenous Knowledge Development in Bangladesh: present and future).
c) Warren presents a typical definition by suggesting “indigenous knowledge is the local knowledge- knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by universities, research institutions, and private firms. It is the basis for local-level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural resource management, and a host of other activities in rural communities” (Warren 1988).
d) According to Flavier, ‘’ indigenous knowledge is the information base for a society, which facilities communication and decision making. Indigenous information systems are dynamic, and are continually influenced by internal creativity and experimentation as well as by contact with external systems” (Flavier 1995).
3.2 Features of Indigenous Knowledge:
Indigenous knowledge system has some distinct features:
a. Indigenous knowledge refers to the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular area.
b. Such knowledge systems are cumulative, representing generations of experiences, careful observations, and trial-and-error experiments.
c. Indigenous knowledge systems are dynamic. New knowledge is continuously added. Such systems do innovate from within and also will internalize, use, and adapt external knowledge to suit the local situation.
d. The quantity and quality of indigenous knowledge that individual posses vary. Age, education, gender, social and economic status, daily experiences, outside influences, roles and responsibilities in the home and community, profession, available time, aptitude and intellectual capability, level of curiosity and observation skills, ability to travel and degree of autonomy and control over natural resources are some of the influencing factors.
e. Indigenous knowledge is stored in people’s memories and activities, and is expressed in stories, songs, folklores, proverbs, dances, myths, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local languages and taxonomies, agricultural practices, equipments, materials, plant species and animal breeds.
f. Indigenous knowledge is shared and communicated orally by specific examples and through culture.
3.3 Types of Indigenous knowledge:
While IK research originally emphasized indigenous technical knowledge of the environment, it is now accepted that the concept of IK goes beyond this narrow interpretation. IK is now considered to be cultural knowledge in its broadcast sense, including all of the social, political, economic and spiritual aspects of a local way of life. Sustainable development researchers have found the following categories of IK to be of particular interest:
Resource management knowledge and the tools, techniques, particles and ruts related to pastoralism, agriculture, agroforestry, water management and the gathering of wild food; classification systems for plants, animals, soils, water and weather; empirical knowledge about flora, fauna and inanimate resources and their practical uses; and the worldview or way the local group perceives its relationship to the natural world (Emery, 1996).
3.4 Historical Approaches of Indigenous knowledge:
The history of indigenous knowledge enquiries stretches back, strictly speaking, to the star of anthropology, whenever one cares to date it. But as it relates to natural resources, and more specifically to development work, it has a considerably shallower pedigree. There are two strands to the evolution of these ideas, which although they have influenced one another to a limited extent, have remained largely independent. These two strands are:
a) Academic approaches;
b) Development approaches.
Academic Approaches: The study of indigenous knowledge issues related to natural resources in academia over the last four or five decades falls into two broad categories:
1. Ethnoscience: it refers largely on local know ledge systems that relate broadly to biological phenomena, comprising a number of sub-fields ethnobotany, ethnozoology, ethnomedicine, and so on.
2. Human Ecology: human ecology draws on biological science systems thinking to account for human-beings relations with their environments, considering them to occupy niches like other animals which they are adapted to exploit, interfacing with their various technological assemblages.
Development Approaches: This has emerged over the last one or two decades. It also falls into two broad categories:
1. Farming System: there are many variants but broadly speaking farming systems research features multidisciplinary terms documenting and analyzing all the complex elements- environmental, socio-economic, agronomic, etc.- that comprise farm-household livelihoods, informing their members multiple objectives, decomodating their dynamic nature and capacity for change.
2. Participatory development: this comprising a growing family of techniques with associated battery of daunting acronyms. They aim to enable local people to participate actively in research and decision making to plan, act on and evaluate development proposals.
Source: Paul Sillitoe, What Know Natives? Local Knowledge in Development; Social Anthropology, 6(2): 203-220.
3.5 Scope of Indigenous knowledge:
In its scope, indigenous knowledge systems cover several topics:
a) Learning System: indigenous methods of imparting knowledge; indigenous approaches to innovation and experimentation.
b) Local organizations, enforcement and controls: traditional institutions for environmental management property management, decision making, conflict resolution, etc.
c) Local classification and Quantification: a community’s definition and classification of phenomena.
d) Human Health: nutrition; human-disease classification system; traditional medicine; preparing and storing local medicines.
e) Animals and Animal Disease: animal breeding and production; traditional ethno-veterinary medicine.
f) Water: traditional water-management and water-conservation systems; irrigation techniques; fisheries.
g) Soil: Soil conservation practices; soil-fertility enhancement practices.
h) Agriculture: indigenous indicators to determine favorable times to prepare plant and harvest; indigenous ways to seed storage, processing, sowing, crop harvesting, storage and marketing methods.
i) Agroforestry: the management of forest plots and trees, animals and the interrelationships between trees, crops, herds and soil fertility.
j) Social networks: kinship ties and their effect on power relations, economic strategies and allocation of resources.
k) Worldview: views of the universe and humanity’s place within it, relationship between humans and nature, beliefs, customs.
l) Others: local crafts; building materials; energy conservation; indigenous tools and changes to local systems overtime.
3.6 Significance of Indigenous knowledge:
There are two basic reasons why it is important for researchers to consider when carrying out research projects:
First and foremost, incorporating IK into research projects can contribute to local empowerment and development, increasing self-sufficiency and strengthening self-determination. Utilizing IK in research projects and management plans gives it legitimacy and credibility in the eyes of both local people and outside scientists, increasing cultural pride and thus motivation to solve local problems with local ingenuity and resources.
Second, indigenous people can provide valuable input about the local environment and how to effectively manage its natural resources.
Third, IK represents a way of life that has evolved with the local environment, so it is specifically adapted to the requirements of local considerations.
Fourth, IK is able to adapt to new conditions and incorporate outside knowledge.
Fifth, local capacity-building is a crucial aspect of sustainable development, and researchers and development specialists should design approaches which support and strengthen appropriate indigenous knowledge institutions.
3.7 Indigenous Knowledge System Vs Scientific Knowledge System:
Some specialists divide knowledge into two distinct categories; scientific knowledge and indigenous knowledge, implicitly suggesting they are incommensurate, and priorities the former over the latter.
Table 7: Current knowledge system characteristics
Scientific knowledge system Indigenous knowledge system
Means used to study phenomena
Specialized, partial General, Holistic
Based on experimentation Based on observation
Immutable mobiles Mutable immobile
Resource utilization characteristics
Depend on external resources Depend on local resources
High input Low input
Land intensive Land extensive
Labor saving Labor demanding
Market risk Environmental risk
Specialized strategic Diverse strategies
Outputs
Low productivity for energy inputs Low productivity for labor inputs
Cultural disjunctions Culturally compatible
Profit Goals Subsistence Goals
High Potential for degradation Low potential for degradation
Not sustainable Sustainable with low population densities
Source: De Walt, B.R., Using Indigenous Knowledge to Improve Agriculture and Natural Resources Management; Human Organization, 53(2):123-131.
While differences between science and indigenous knowledge may sometimes be apparent, the distinction derives in part from the development model held. The transfer-of-technology approach belongs to a discourse which constructs difference and defines the terms according to which evidence and validity are assessed. The process learning approach dissolves difference and contextualizes evidence and validity. The former approach resists dialogue, privileging scientific analysis over indigenous knowledge, whereas the latter fosters dialogue between natural and social scientists and natural resource users.
Table 8: Indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge
Knowledge Indigenous Knowledge Western Scientific Knowledge
Relationship Subordinate Dominant
Communication Oral Teaching Didactic Analytical
Dominant mode of thinking Intuitive Analytical
Characteristics Holistic Subjective Experiential Reductionist Objective Positivist
Source: Paul Sillitoe, 2000, Indigenous knowledge Development in Bangladesh: Present and Future.
In this “brave new uncertain world’’ interdisciplinary research is to be encouraged. While there may be arguments for distinguishing between scientific and indigenous knowledge, there is a growing consensus that the synergy of “knowledge negotiated” at the development interface may advance more sustainable interventions.
3.8 Transmission of Indigenous knowledge:
Indigenous knowledge developed through hundreds and thousands of years. There is no systematic record of indigenous knowledge. This knowledge is dynamic; area specific and oral is nature. This knowledge is protected and disseminated orally by the people of old age group of the community. Most of these people have the experience of these catastrophes for more than once. In most cases this knowledge is adopted on “trial and error’’ basis and tested in nature. This “trial and error” lasted for hundreds or thousands of years.
3.9 Limitations of indigenous knowledge:
IK is sometimes accepted uncritically because naive notions that whatever indigenous people do is naturally in harmony with the environment. This is historical and contemporary evidence that indigenous peoples have also committed environmental ‘sins’ through over-gazing, over-hunting or over-cultivation of the land. It is misleading to think of it as always being ‘good’, ‘right’ or ‘sustainable’.
Indigenous knowledge can also be eroded by wider economic and social forces. Pressure on indigenous peoples to integrate with larger societies is often great and as they become more integrated, the social structure which generate indigenous knowledge and practices can break down. Consequently, indigenous beliefs, values, customs and practices may be altered and the resulting knowledge base incomplete.
Sometimes IK that was once well-adapted and effective for securing a livelihood in a particular environment becomes inappropriate under conditions of environmental degradation.
Although IK systems have a certain amount of flexibility in adapting to ecological change, when change is particularly rapid or drastic, the knowledge associated with them may be rendered unsuitable and possibly damaging in the altered conditions. Finally, an often overlooked feature of it which needs to be taken into account is that sometimes the knowledge which local people rely on is wrong or even harmful.
3.10 Indigenous knowledge in Bangladesh:
Recent strategy documents for environmental management and agricultural extension indicate that the Government of Bangladesh is increasingly interested in seeing some attention given to indigenous knowledge, particularly as it relates to natural resource management. The National Environmental Management Action Plan (1995) includes in its recommended actions on land resources: “study on indigenous land use practices, to increases efficiency of the production system and its application.” The new Agricultural Extension Policy (1996) states further that; it is recognized that farmer’s own indigenous technical knowledge is often environmentally sustainable, and efforts should be made to support and learn from farmers, as well as the formal research system’’, going on that “The New Agricultural Extension Policy also recognized that farmers themselves are actively engaged in their own experimentation, as part of their daily agricultural lives.. Efforts to learn from and strengthen such informal research should be made”. These sentiments are expressed by many of the recent contributors to this sector. It is clearly an opportune time for us to advance on indigenous knowledge work in the context of development initiatives in the country.
3.11 Literature Review
Some important literature on flood management by indigenous technique has been reviewed.
i. Disaster Preparedness for Bangladesh Floods and Other Natural Calamities; Prof. A.K.M. Kafilludin, Padma Printers & Colors Ltd., Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1988.
The book is written to provide a framework to policy makers, administrators, scientists, NGOs, health providers and individuals on how to work out an action plan, able to readily cope with the exigencies created by a natural disaster. It identifies measures needed for the protection of lives, homes, crops, livestock from its deleterious effects.
ii. Coping in Bangladesh: Disaster and Development in Perspective; Hameeda Hossain, Cole, P. Dodge, F.H. Abed, UPL, Dhaka, 1992.
This book provides a human development perspective, highlighting successes which can be replicated and lapses which can be avoided. It begins by chronicling the flood of 1988 and the relief efforts. It recognizes gender differentials in the vulnerability of the coastal people for natural disaster and their capacity to access to local community support or relief assistance.
iii. Flood 88: Environmental and Perceptional Study; Raana Haider, Atiq Rahman and Saleemul Huq (eds), BCAS, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1988.
This study is a glimpse of the impact of the devastating event. The documentation of the perception of survivors and participants in the relief and rehabilitation phases provides a revealing in-sight into the role of future disaster preparedness and management. The primary actors in disaster management and rehabilitation are the people themselves.
iv. Science, Environment and Disaster; Syed Safiullah, IIESDM, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1989.
This book is a collection of essays written between 1975 and 1989 covering issues in science, environment and disaster. The topics of disaster perception, floods and floods in the regional and international perspective and science and environment in relation to bio-geo-chemical perspective of Bangladesh have been discussed.
v. Environmental Profile: Bangladesh; DANIDA, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, DANIDA, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1989.
In the book the highlighted environmental issues are population growth, natural hazards, agricultural land, water, forestry, industry, institutional aspects and environmental awareness and education.
vi. Bangladesh Environment: Facing the 21st Century; Philip Gain (ed), SEHD, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1998.
This book is a country report on the state of Bangladesh’s environment, to a large extent—attempts to project some important signs of the times and what is coming in the next century. Reports from the field and stories of real life, matched and mixed with expert analyses on major environmental issues of Bangladesh, also attempt to develop a context to understand Bangladesh better.
vii. Indigenous Knowledge Development in Bangladesh: Present and Future; Paul Sillitoe (ed), UPL, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2000.
Divided into five sections relating to development issues, agroforestry, plant resources, fish resources and methodological issues, the book contains twenty-four valuable articles including an introduction and conclusion and brings together a range of disciplines from anthropology and sociology to natural resource sciences and development studies. The volume provides us with a wealth of information on both the theoretical and practical aspects of indigenous knowledge research.
viii. Environmental Management in Bangladesh: Towards More Effective Regulations; A. Atiq Rahman, BCAS, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1990.
The vast majority of the population in Bangladesh lives almost exclusively on the natural resource base. But this resource base is under serious threat and environmental planning probably offers an opportunity for coping. The current situation of environmental management in Bangladesh is one of transition, opportunity and uncertainty.
ix. Disaster Preparedness- Are You Prepared for a Flood? Hugh Brammer, ADAB News, October-November, 1980.
This paper draws attention to the various issues relating to flood preparedness in Bangladesh. A flood is defined as an atmospheric disturbance. It is pointed out that the best precautionary measure against floods is to know the kinds of damage and problems which a flood can cause in a particular area. The author also emphasized the need for flood warning and also agricultural rehabilitation program after a flood.
x. Indigenous Disaster Management Culture: A Comparative Study between the Flood Affected People of Bangladesh and Japan; Shahed Hassan, ECOMAC, 2002.
This article was envisaged to examine the specialized disaster lore which the vulnerable or risk exposed people mentally process and store their knowledge so that they can retrieve as needed. It may be concluded from the study that in Bangladesh people have their own way of weather reading and indentifying certain indigenous indicators to perceive, predict and to take necessary pre-cautions against natural calamities. These indicators or skills have been traditionally acquired in close association with nature and transmitted through generations.
xi. Flood Hazard and the Strategy of Human Occupance in the Coastal Areas of Bangladesh; M. Aminul Islam, Oriental Geographer, vol.15, 1971.
The article starts with a description of flood hazard, nature and the type of human occupancy in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. It is revealed that in recent year’s large increases in the number of deaths is due to several factors, such as occupational hazard, sea-level fluctuations and other correlated factors. Author then mentioned different strategies of hazard adjustment. He argued that various adjustment options should be considered in any recovery program. It is also suggested that surveys of attitude of the respondents in the coastal areas is important for planners for formulating and successful implementation of their programs.
xii. Human Adjustment to Flood Hazards in Coastal Bangladesh; M. Aminul Islam. In K. Maudood Elahi(ed.); Perspective of Bangladesh Geography, Bangladesh Geography Association, Dhaka, 1981.
The paper is the result of a study conducted on some selected coastal dwellers in Char Jabbar with three objectives:
1. To study the processes which have led to the present pattern of occupancy..
2. To study the degree to which the various hazards are recognized by those who live adjacent to the shore, and
3. To identify the range of adjustments that is practiced or might be practiced in dealing with the flood flooding problem. The adjustments that are practiced in dealing with the flood are divided into two broad categories, a variety of adjustments requiring prior preparation and emergency adjustments without prior preparation.
xiii. Perception of Flood Hazard and Community Response; Abdullah Al-Mamun Khan; Oriental Geographer, vol.18, Jan, 1974.
The paper is based on a study of 122 permanent coastal residents of Chittagong area who were interviewed through a questionnaire. The paper begins with a general description of flood hazard, study area (Chittagong coast) and also the objectives and methods of study. It is found that due to religious background the coastal occupants show relatively moderate hazard expectancy. Although people are aware of their vulnerability, their psycho-religious sentiment has given them orthodoxy to rise above it, creating a fatalistic and indifferent attitude. The author also noticed a variety of adjustment strategies which have been evolved over the years.
3.12 Limitation of the Study
Though from the very beginning of the study I have devoted myself, it has some limitations as well. Some of them are given below:
Limited Time-Frame:
Within a short period of time I have completed my work while it’s true that anthropological study requires long time participation and observation. Due to several unavoidable reasons, short time range, I could not spend sufficient time with the respondents that could make the research more valid. So, because of the shortage of time and resources the study has been carried out only on limited number of respondents.
Identity Problem:
When I went there the respondents of my research area thought that I am a journalist, NGO or government worker. That’s why they firstly refused me but lastly I could convince them about my identity.
Lack of Experience:
We know that for doing any research experience is very much essential. Due to lack of proper experience I could not conduct my research more scientifically. These are the mentionable limitations of the study. However, throughout the study all efforts were made to remain totally objective and sincere to the research.
Pains
Possibly no anthropologists are to be found in the world who doesn’t remember his first day in the field. Even after few days. I recall my first entry in Madhya Charramani Mohan—the walk up the village road, then the sitting, on shop front, the light faint and the air warm from the mass of children pressing into have a good look at the strange visitor. And the opening questions, some to be repeated for the whole period of fieldwork, Who are you? Why do you visit the village? What is your religion? Where do you stay? And later………… Where is your resident in Dhaka? Is the photo you took of me mill be developed? Will you take another one of me? When will my photo arrive?
Balanced Reciprocity: I have made my point which is that the char people wanted a balance exchange of information; as many questions as I asked, they wanted to ask in return. Ta least this was the explanation I gave myself for the repeated questions on the same topics of coping strategies by the same people; for it could not be because they had forgotten my answer. At first, it may have been to see whether I went to telling the truth, whether I would contradict myself. But in the end, it was because felt that information and relations with me in general must be on the basis of more or less balanced reciprocity.
The Rumor: There was a rumor that I am a government official who comes to give them relief.Soon it became clear that I had no particular close contact with officials not even with NGOs. Nor did I behave in an official manner. The story of my being a spy was of course promulgated, but the lack of overt any administrative interest, and of any untoward intrusions from outside meant that after a while this view may dropped. And so, slowly emerged the assessment that I believed accompanied me when I left the char.
Building Lobbying with All Classes: When one tended to be identified with a single family, one’s freedom of movement might be restricted. The live on neutral ground would make it easier for me to see people of both high and low class in the stratified char society.
Participation in gossiping: As I was a participant observer, I collected my data through both formal and informal interviews and most of them were conducted by gossiping with people of several ages. In the leisure time I was also like to gossip with the char people, sometimes in the shops and sometimes in my informant’s house.
A Dilemma of Researcher and Newsmen: The press people sent report to the newspapers with photos of flood affected people throwing them to social problem and their personal as much was horrified. That’s why any stranger was taken to be as newsman and they were absolutely reluctant to cooperate with them.
Convenient Rapport Building in the Evening and Night: Most of the char people, both men and women, always engaged in some sorts of daily work. So, compare to day time they were freer at the evening and night. At that time, they talked more with me.
CHAPTER 4: PROFILE FO THE STUDY AREA
This costal char is situated between the ending of Lakshmipur Sadar Upazilla and the beginning of Ramgati Thana. This intermediary place is located in the riverside of Meghna, which is known as Burir Ghat. This Burir Ghat is four km far from launch ghat (Lakshmipur- Barisal) of Moju Choudhurir Hat. This Moju choudhurir Hat is situated 11/12 km far from Lakshmipur Sadar Upazilla.
The location of Madhya Charramani Mohan can be manifested by the following figure:
This char is under Shak Char union of Lakshmipur district. It is located in the central zone of costal area at 22003 North latitude and 88000 East longitude at the confluence of Meghna estuary on the Bay of Bengal. Madhya Charramani Mohan has approximately 14,359 acres of land which comprise 781 household and 3,790 populations.
Table 9: Madhya Charramani Mohan
Name Code Area (Acre) Population
Zilla Lakshmipur 51 3,59,779 14,89,901
Upazilla Lakshmipur
Sadar 43 1,27,210 5,75,278
Union Shak Char 85 20,423 50,349
Source: Census Report, BBS 2001.
4.1. Historical Background:
There is no clear concept about the origin of the char among its dwellers. But most of the people agree with the notion that, since 25/30 years ago there was a char in this place which was victim of severe river erosion. After 15 years later, from that time, another char further raised. This newly formed char is named as Madhya Charramani Mohan. Till the period of my fieldwork, this island becomes victim of 4/5 times of river erosion. Sometimes this river erosion is continuing for 1/2 days to maximum 7 days. This several times of river erosion changed the origin place of this char.
There is also no written document about the history of the origin of its name. In most of the case fisherman discover island and they gave the names of the islands. It is assumed that, this is the same in the case of Madhya Charramani Mohan. In the government official record this name is used..
Some people called it as Shak char. But this two char is situated in the opposite direction of Meghna River. While several other chars are situated on another side of Meghna River from Madhya Charramani Mohan.
4.2 Geographical features:
This area in which this char is situated is the largest estuarine tide dominated delta on planet (ADB 1994). The sediments exceed a thickness of five km in places and have been deposited since Pleistocene times under essentially the same drainage system as at present.
As this mass of material has been laid down, the cost below has subsided and downward, allowing fresh sediments to be deposited on top. The formation of the chars and under water bars is influenced not only by river-born sediment loads and the strong fluvial and tidal flow, but also by the disturbances created by periodic flood events. The entire delta area therefore remains extremely unstable and will be subjected to large-scale changes can occur from year to year (ADB 1994). Geologically, the coastal sediments are recent deposits, unconsolidated, homogenous in texture and mineralogy.. The mode of deposition is estuarine along the southern coastline. Accretion and erosion are active processes.
4.3 Biogeography Settings:
Covered by Keora and other mangrove tree species on generally raised foreshore land that is subject to occasional inundation by high tides. The area falls under the Sunderban Mangrove Forest Biogeographic zone. The forest is generally characterized by the dominance of some species like Keora (Sonneratica apelata), Geewa (Excoecaria agallaocha) and others. The undergrowth is generally composed of saplings, and shrub species such as Acanthus ilicifolius, Dalbergia spinosa and others. Madhya Charramani Mohan contains considerably high floral diversity. About 1,000 heads of feral water buffalos live in the forest. There also live good number of bird species such as Egretta garzetta, Ardeola grayii, Motacilla alba and other reptiles such as Varanus bengalensis, Mabuya carinata and amphibians such as Rana tigrina and others.
4.4 Habitat Pattern:
Four habitat types are under defined in the area, namely, high forest, open land/grassland, sandbar/shore area and ponds riverine. The high land forest is the major habitant type in terms of extent or size. The forest habitant of the area is generally preserved for the folivorous and frugivorous arboreal and hoofed animals. But the gathering of forest products such as fuel wood and others by the people residing inside and around the forest have adversely been affecting the quality of the wildlife habitat. The most abundant mammals are Cheetal, Flying fox, Beji, Banor, Uud.. The most abundant birds are little Egret, Kanibok and common kingfisher.
4.5 Settlement Pattern:
The char land played an outstanding role in the settlement of the people and generally, the land and the scope of the work in the chars influenced the earliest settlers. There were two types of settlers found on the chars related to the period the char emerged. As the current setters for this char were booth migrated as well as by birth.
Most of the people migrated to the char from the Hatia, Ramgati, Raipur as these places are closer to them. The people did not migrate to the char without any intention. Basically it was government initiative to make people live in the char and in getting their intention implemented the government some pieces of land to the early settlers. The factors leading the people towards migration to different char were manifold among which had possessing was the main. It indicated that the people were inspired after occupying the land for becoming a man of means.
There were other reasons to migrate to the char, which seemed to have relation with social power. Basically, the poor people migrated to the char in quest of job and land.
Most people of this char have also houses in government places on the other side of the river. This place is more connected with main land than the char land. To reside in this place they have to pay 1,000 tk. while couple of years ago this amount was 450 tk. Mainly when they get warning signal of flood and other disasters they immediately come to this govt. place from char land. It is seemed that, the working or productive men of household always live in char land.. The main tasks for them in char are agriculture, grazing buffaloes etc. Sometimes they do it in exchange of wages. The cropping strategies mainly directed in the yard of their house of govt. place.
4.6 Demographic Features of Char land:
Area, Household and Population: This char is situated in Lakshmipur Sadar Upazilla. The whole island is surrounded by the river Meghna.
Table 10: Area, household, population by sex
Area (acre) Household Population
Total Male Female
14,359 781 3,790 2,039 1751
Source: Population census, 2001, BBS.
\
The population of this char is increasing day by day. The birth rates are so high because the low rate of literacy. The migrant peoples are also increasing alarmingly in this char. According to the population census of 2001, surveyed by Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, the total population of Madhya Charamani Mohan is 3,790.
Table 11: Population by age group and sex
Total 0-4 years 5-9 10-14 15-17 18-34 35-59 60+
M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F
2039 1751 310 319 366 294 271 226 105 71 468 547 388 239 128 55
Source: own
Main Activities:
The big proportion of the people of Madhya Charramani Mohan do nothing. Most of the working peoples are directly involved in agriculture.
Table 12: Population 10 years and over by Main Activity
Total Not working Looking for work Household work Agriculture Industry Water, Electricity, Gas Construction Transport Hotel Restaurant Business
2501 653 35 779 562 4 11 104 47 11 122
Source: own
Income Source:
Although agriculture is the main source of income of char dwellers, other sources like fishery, agricultural labor, transport also have contribution to their income.
Table 13: Household in dwelling unit by main source of income
Main source of Income
Total Agri/ Forest Fishery Agri Labor Non-agri labor Weaving Industry Business Hawking Transport Construction Religious service Employment Rent Remittance
717 29 88 414 23 29 0 66 0 7 0 8 11 0 1
Source: own
Education:
The total literacy rate (7+ years) of Madhya Charramani Mohan is 10.43%. In male people this rate is 12.39% while in female this is only 8.07%. This literacy rate is very much low because in the char land there is no government education institution and their extreme poverty forced their children to go for productive work rather for school.
Table 14: Population 5 to 24 years by Age group, School Attendance and Sex
Total 5-9 years 10-14 Years 15-24 Years
Attending Non attending Attending Non Attending Attending Non Attending
M F M F M F M F M F M F M F
909 856 88 59 275 235 88 66 183 160 25 11 247 325
Source: own
Marital Condition:
In char marriage in an important phenomenon for their social network, which help them to survive in some better ways.
Table 15: Population 10 years and over by sex and Marital Status
Total Male Female
Total Never Married Married Widowed Divorced Total Never Married Married Widowed Divorced
2501 1363 512 848 3 0 1138 316 773 6 43
Source: own
Religion:
Although Islam is the main religion in char but at now some migrants of other religion are also residing here. There are also some tribal. There is couple of Masjid in the Char land but there is no institute for other religion.
Table 16: Household and population by Religion and Tribal
Total Muslim Hindu Buddhist Christian Others Tribal
HH PP HH PP HH PP HH PP HH PP HH PP HH PP
781 3,790 776 3,773 5 16 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 7
Source: Population Census, 2001, BBS.
Household Pattern:
Mainly three types of household are available here: nuclear household, extended household and joint household.
Table 17: Household in Dwelling Unit by Population Size
Total No. of Household with Average size of Household
1 Person 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11+
717 16 75 136 116 119 107 77 48 16 7 6 5.29
Source: Population Census, 2001, BBS
Other Facilities:
The toilet facility, drinking facility, electricity facility is not so well in char.
Table 18: Household in dwelling unit by source of dirking water, toilet facility, electricity connection and ownership of land
Total
HH Toilet facility Sources of Drinking water HH Reporting
Sanitary others none Tap Tube well Deep tube well pond others Electricity connection Own Agri. land
717 18 677 22 5 345 216 80 74 19 109
Source: own
4.7 Beliefs, Rituals and Cultural Practice:
The people living in the char have a distinct style of rural life. They are said to have a choura sub-culture, which is somewhat different from the ways of the people living in the mainland. A cultural distinction is noticeable possibly because of the tough uncertain lives led by them and risks involved in residing in the perpetually hazard-prone char-lands. The vagaries of nature impact a certain roughness of character to the char people, so much so in fact, that a person of crude behavior in mainland is often labeled as a choura (Baqee, 1998). They lead a very much uncertain and fatalistic life.
These people have some beliefs and rituals, which is unique in its nature and practices from the mainland. The social, economic and environmental characteristics of this area create such type of cultural practices and orientation.
Mia:
The people believe that every char has an owner who is an invisible saint, is called ‘Mia’. He is a spiritual man and a man of Allah. He came here by Allah’s order. He is around soft height, fair complexion. He always wore a white Alkhalla (long coat) and a white Pagri (turban) in his head. He also uses a white nagri (earthen pitcher). Some dwellers claim that they have seen “Mia”.
4.8 Festivals:
Most of the families in the char are Muslim. So two Eid days: Eid-Ul-Fetre and Eid-Ul-Azha are the days of festival in Madhya Charramani Mohan.
Another festival is Baishakhi Mela. It is held for three days in Baishakh. The people of this island observe the Halkhata (the festival of the first day of the Bengali year). In this system the businessman starts new accounts book so they invite people and give them sweets.
In the season of fishing every boat arranges Milad to pray for Allah to get good amounts of fishes. When the fishermen can catch a good amount of fishes they arrange good foods in every boat.
CHAPTER 5: MAN AND LIFE IN CHAR
Disasters, natural and man-made, are phenomenal in Bangladesh. The most devastating floods and floods of the world occur in Bangladesh. The victims, themselves, know best on how to cope with these disasters.
5.1 Disaster:
A disaster is an occurrence such as hurricane, tornado, storm, flood, high water, wind-driven water, earthquake, drought, blizzard, pestilence, fire, explosion, volcanic eruption, building collapse, transportation wreck, or other situation that causes human suffering or creates human needs that the victims cannot alleviate without assistance.
Drought leaves permanent damage and encourages the desertification process that is going on in some parts of northern Bengal. River erosion takes away thousands of hectares of land every year in a country where land is the scarcest resource. Earthquakes may cause millions and billions of Taka worth of damage. Perhaps the most disturbing but ignored fact about disasters is that they are all linked to each other. So, diminishing the effects of disasters would involve a total approach rather than tackling one or the other disaster. But people are unfortunately becoming increasingly unconcerned about the consequences of the chain of disasters. Greed, ignorance and lack of opportunities which again are linked in a chain have joined hands to damage and possibly even destroy the environment of this land.
5.2 Observations About Historic Floods
Documentation of floods in terms of flood depth, area affected, damage to crops, damage to infrastructures, number of people affected, and overall monetary damage started in 1953 (Elahi, 1992; Hughes, et al., 1994; Shajahan, 1998; Islam, 1999). Other major recorded floods prior to 1953 took place in 1787, 1917, and 1943 (Elahi, 1991). Based on the historic records, it is obvious that the frequency, magnitude, and duration of floods have increased substantially during the last few decades. For example, all major floods covering more than 30% of the country (total area of Bangladesh is 144,000 km2) occurred after 1974. Four floods of such great magnitude (1974, 1987, 1988, and 1998) took place during the last 25 years, averaging one in every 6 years. According to Elahi (1991 and 1992), the floods of 1980 and 1984 also covered an area more than 30%, making the number of such floods to be 6 since 1974 (i.e. one in every 4 years). In addition, the total area covered by major floods has been steadily increasing since 1974, with an exception of 1984 floods (Islam, 1999). The data showing the total affected area varies widely from one source to the others (Table 1). The area affected by major floods has increased from 35% in 1974 to 68% in 1998. Variations in data pose a problem in analyzing the findings. However, all sources of data show a general trend of increased flooding propensity.
5.3 Factors Contributing To Flooding Propensity
Flooding propensity in an area can vary greatly with a change in the: (a) amount of runoff that results from precipitation in a watershed, (b) water carrying capacity of a drainage basin, and (c) change in land elevations with respect to riverbeds and sea level. An increase in runoff component of the hydrologic cycle in a watershed, a decrease in water carrying capacity of a drainage system, and a decrease in land elevations will increase flooding propensity in an area. Therefore, the flooding problem and the solutions to such problems can (or should) be analyzed in the context of these three fundamental parameters: runoff, water carrying capacity, and land elevations. We need to analyze landuse practices in watersheds during the last few decades that have potentials to impact hydrodynamic behaviors of rivers, affecting three vital parameters mentioned above.
Unplanned urbanization: Rapid population growth creates extra pressure on the land of already overcrowded Bangladesh. Agricultural lands give way to housing developments and roads. This rapid development and urbanization has almost undoubtedly must have aggravated the flooding problem in Bangladesh. Urban population has increased from 1.81 million (4.33% of total population) in 1951 to 25.2 million in 1990 (RTF, 1991). According to Islam (1999), the current urban population is more than 30 million (25% of total population), and is projected to exceed 58 million (36% of total population), by the year 2010 (RTF, 1991).
Unplanned urbanization can adversely impact flooding situation in a watershed. Prior to urbanization there exists a greater lag time between intense rainfall and peak stream flow. After urbanization the lag time is shortened, peak flow is greatly increased, and the total run-off is compressed into a shorter time interval, creating favorable conditions for intense flooding. For example, in a city that is totally served by storm drains, and where 60% of the land surface is covered by roads and buildings (like Dhaka City), floods are almost six times more numerous than before urbanization (Pipkin and Cunnings, 1983).
Following urbanization, it is necessary to adjust drainage capacity in the watershed to take into account the “basin development factor (BDF)” in order to accommodate the extra runoff that results due to urbanization. The amount of adjustment in the carrying capacity of natural streams following urbanization depends on the degree of BDF. For an increase the amount of impervious surface by 10% in a watershed, a 23% increase in the drainage capacity by dredging or deepening of streams is suggested by Sauer et al. (1983). Dhaka City is located in the watersheds of Buriganga and Sitalakha Rivers. A significant increase in the amount of impervious surface in these watersheds has taken place due to expansion of the Dhaka Metropolitan area over the last few decades. However, no attempts have been taken to increase the carrying capacity of these rivers to accommodate for the BDF. On the contrary, the internal drainage system consisting of tributaries to Buriganga and Sitalakha Rivers has been diminished due to unplanned landuse practices. For instance, it is apparent from topographic maps that Dhanmondi Lake and Baridhara Lake are remnants of tributaries of Bugiganga-Sitalakha Rivers. Also, filling up of Dholaikhali chnnel has reduced the runoff capacity from Dhaka City. The lack of an efficient storm sewer system in Dhaka City also contributes to the reduction of water carrying capacity, causing waterlogging throughout the monsoon season. According to reports published in national newspapers, Dhaka City has experienced serious waterlogging problems during the wet months of July to October in 1999.
Riverbed aggradation: Riverbed aggradation is most pronounced for the Ganges and its distributaries. From the border with India to the point where the Ganges meets the Brahmaputra River, the riverbed has aggraded as much as 5-7 meters in recent years (Alexander, 1989b). According to a study done by Kalam and Jabbar (1991), the average width of the Ganges has decreased from 1.27 km in 1973 to 1.01 km in 1985. Riverbed aggradation is so pronounced in Bangladesh that changes in riverbed level can be observed during one's lifetime. For example, the Old Brahmaputra River was navigable for steamers only about 30 years ago, and is presently an abandoned channel. This situation is true for many other distributaries of the Ganges and Meghna Rivers, such as the Madhumati, Bhairab, Chitra, Ghorautra Rivers, etc. Riverbed aggradation reduces the water carrying capacity of rivers, causing bank overflow. This recent increase in riverbed levels has undoubtedly contributed to the increased flooding propensity in Bangladesh.
Soil erosion: Ploughing makes the land surface more susceptible to soil erosion. Surface run-off can easily wash away the topsoil from cultivated lands. This surface erosion reduces land elevations, which in turn increase flood intensity in an area. According to the Report of the Task Forces (RTF) on Bangladesh Development Strategies for the 1990s (1991), soil erosion is a serious problem in many parts of Bangladesh. Hilly areas in Sylhet, Chittagong, and Chittagong Hill Tract districts are more susceptible to soil erosion. About 55% of Chittagong Hill Tract area is highly susceptible to soil erosion (RTF, 1991). Heavy monsoon showers remove the surface soil through runoff. Eroded sediments are deposited on the riverbeds, reducing the water carrying capacity and increasing flooding propensity in a watershed. Soil erosion also reduces land elevations and increases elevations of riverbeds, contributing to increased flood depths. The land elevations in other parts of Bangladesh must have been reduced over time due to soil erosion. Aside from this, the tilling on the mountain slopes of the Himalayas is thought to be responsible for massive soil erosion in Nepal (Dregne, 1987; Thapa and Weber, 1991; Sharma, 1991), which eventually causes rapid riverbed aggradation in Bangladesh (Alexander, 1989a). Moreover, construction sites in cities can contribute to soil erosion if silt fences or retention ponds are not employed properly (Allen, 1999). In Bangladesh, no such measures are in practice at construction sites.
Deforestation in the upstream region: A rapid increase in population in the Indian Subcontinent over the course of the 20th century has resulted in an acceleration of deforestation in the hills of Nepal to meet the increasing demands for food and fuel wood (Sharma, 1991). Deforestation of steep slopes is assumed to lead to accelerated soil erosion and landslides during monsoon precipitation, which in turn is believed to contribute to devastating floods in the downstream regions such as in Bangladesh. Deforestation within Bangladesh also contributes to the soil erosion. The amount of forest cover in Bangladesh was reduced from 15.6% in 1973 to 14.6% in 1985-86, and eventually to13.4% in 1987 (RFT, 1991). ). A minimum of 25% forest cover is suggested for a healthy ecosystem. The amount of forest cover in Bangladesh at the present time believed to be less than 10%.
Local relative sea-level rise: The ultimate destination of all rivers is the ocean. The land elevations are measured with respect to the sea level in an area. Therefore, any change in the sea level causes land elevations to change as well. At the present time the sea level is rising globally (Pilkey et al., 1989). If the sea-level rises in an area at rates faster than the rates of land aggradation due to sedimentation, then land elevations decreases over time. Any decrease in land elevations can cause increased inundation by rivers overflowing at bankfull stage. The rate of local relative sea-level rise is 7 mm/year in the coastal areas of Bangladesh (Emery and Aubrey, 1990). According to another study by Das (1992), the local relative sea level at Chittagong Port has increased by as much as 25 cm between 1944 and 1964. The relative sea level in the Bay of Bengal is predicted to rise 83 to 153 cm by the year 2050 (Jamal, 1993). An increase in the sea level raises the base level of rivers, which in turn reduces the gradients of river flow. As a consequence, the amount of river discharge decreases, creating a backwater effect further inland. The backwater effect caused by sea-level rise can result in more flooding of lands from "piled up" river water inland. This certainly seems to be one of the reasons for the increase in flood intensity in recent years in Bangladesh.
Inadequate sediment accumulation: A delta can prograde if sediment accumulation rates are greater than the rates of local relative sea-level rise. Limited data shows that the average sediment accumulation rates in the coastal areas of Bangladesh is 5-6 mm/year for the last few hundred years, which is not enough to keep pace with the rising sea level at 7mm/year (Khalequzzaman, 1989). As a result, land elevations must have been decreasing over time in Bangladesh, resulting in more flooding inundation.
Subsidence and compaction of sediments: Sediments on a delta plain are rich in decomposed organic matters, and are subject to compaction due to dewatering and sediment weights. Most deltas subside due to the weight sediments, and due to overdraft of groundwater to meet the demand of increased population. Subsidence and compaction reduce land elevations with respect to sea level (Pilkey et al., 1989). No direct measurements of subsidence or compaction are known for Bangladesh. However, the groundwater table in Dhaka City has had a considerable lowering by as much as 9 to 12 meters over the last 3 decades. Experience in other countries indicate that at least 9 meters of permanent lowering of groundwater table cause 30 cm of land subsidence (RFT, 1991). Therefore, it is likely that land elevations in many parts of Dhaka City have been lowered by up to 30 cm, contributing to increased flood depth.
5.4. Disasters In Bangladesh:
History: According to official information disasters, the first recorded episode which could be called so occurred in 1644-45 and it was a flood though the damages inflicted is not mentioned. In 1769-70 and 1783-84 drought is mentioned as a natural disaster. The first disaster which records a death figure occurred in 1822 during the colonial era when a flood killed 40,000 people. The drought of 1856-66 which hit Bengal (the part now mostly in West Bengal) killed over 1, 35,000 people which for that period is an awesome number. In 1876, a flood killed 10,000 people and two years later another one in 1898, killed an estimated 1, 75, 000 people. The scale of such massive devastations is difficult to comprehend from today’s time point given the sparse demography of that period. The natural disaster which killed the highest number of people happened in November 1970 when in a single height 3, 00,000 perished in a matter of hours.
But death counts are only part of the story. It neither tells the full length of suffering nor of disaster prevention, management and mitigation activities.
Major Disasters: The major disaster identified in Bangladesh are : floods; floods and storm surges; tornadoes; drought and desertification; river erosion; earthquakes; arsenic contamination of ground water sources; pollution; refugees; ethnic, sectarian or communal conflict; and epidemics.
Table 19: Major Natural Emergencies/Disasters Bangladesh (1955-1996)
Month Type of Disaster Affected Location Est. No. of Deaths Est. Affected Population Est. Damage (USD MS)
1955 flood - - - -
1957 Flood - 500 - -
1958 - Coastal Area 14,000 - -
1959 Floods - 10,000 - -
1960 Cyclone Coastal Area 3,000 - -
1961 Flood Meghna estuary 11,200 - 11.9
1963 Flood Coastal Area 11,520 10,00,000 46.5
1964 Cyclone Coastal Area - 196 - -
1965 Flood 36,000 10,000,000 57.7
1966 Flood Coastal Area 850 50,000,000 22.4
1969 Tornado Demra 922 16,511 40.50
1970 Flood southern area 3,00,000 36,48,000 86.4
1961 Flood Dhaka-Comilla 849 1,60,000 -
1972 Drought Northern area - - -
1973 Flood South Coast 1000 - -
1974 Flood - 20 - -
1974 Floods & Famine Nationwide 30,000 36,000,000 579.2
1975 Flood - 5 - -
Apr/1977 Tornado Faridpur 500 6,000 1.0
1977 Flood 5 Districts 600 - -
Apr/1978 Cyclone Coastal Area 1,000 - -
1978/79 Drought - - - -
1980 Floods Northwestern region 655 10,000,000 150.0
1981 Flood - 2 - -
1982 Drought - - - -
1983 Flood(2) - 343 - -
1984 Flood Nationwide 1,200 30,000,000 600.0
May/1985 Cyclone Bhola, Noakhali 11,069 1,300,000 5.3
1986 Flood - 14 - -
Sept/1987 Floods Nationwide 2,055 29,700,000 330.0
July/1988 Cyclone Nationwide 2,379 45,000,000 2,137.0
1988 Flood Nationwide - 5,708 900,70,000 -
Mar/1989 Tornado Manikgonj 1,500 5,00,000 4.0
1989 Drought Northwestern region - - - -
1993 Floods - 162 - -
1994 Flood Coastal Area 188 4,00,000 -
Apr/1995 Tornado Munshiganj, Barisal 37 20,000 -
1998 Floods Nationwide 255 10,000,000 -
2001 Tornado Tangail, Jamalpur 522 - -
2008 Flood Nationwide 15 - -
Total 436248 - -
Source: MDMR Control Room, 1996, BWDB, 1996; BBS: Munir-uz-zaman, 1990; CDL, 1992a; Kafilludin, 1988; ADB 1988a; Mahalanobis, 1927; USAID/OFDA 1994; - data not available, in Philip Gain(ed); Bangladesh Environment: Facing the 21st Century
Zones of Vulnerability:
In Bangladesh, concern regard the destruction capacity of earthquakes was linked to the protection of major industrial and infrastructural construction especially those with foreign funding. This led to preparation of vulnerability zoning maps. At present, Bangladesh is divided into three zones with north and northeast- Sylhet, Mymensingh and Rangpur etc, in Zone I which is the most vulnerable. Zone II which runs across the middle of the country from northwest to southeast includes Dhaka, Chittagong, Dinajpur, Bogra, Tangail, etc, and Zone III which is considered less risky but as parts of an active Zone no part is fully safe. Zone also changes according to the movement of the plates and energies generated by the same.
5.5. Flood:
a) Meaning of flood hazard:
Hazard means an unknown and unpredictable phenomenon that causes an event to result one way rather than another, a source of danger, take a risk in the hope of a favorable outcome and put at risk etc. flood is a source of danger that is a hazard.
b) Meaning of flood risk:
Risk means a measure of the probability that damage to life, health, property, and/or the environment will occur as a result of a given hazard. There is a measure of probability in the flood that damage on life, livelihood, health and sanitation, property and habitant etc. so this measure of probability is the flood risk. Disaster means an adverse or unfortunate event, especially a sudden and extraordinary misfortune, a calamity, a serious mishap. Flood is a calamity and an adverse event so it is a disaster
c) Meaning of coping with flood:
Cope means to deal successfully with a difficult problem or situation. So, to deal successfully with flood risk is coping with flood. Flood creates various types of risks, problems or situations. To deal with those risks, problems or situations means coping with flood.
d) Meaning of coping strategy:
By adopting that technique, people cope with disaster that is coping strategy. By adopting those strategies, people cope with the flood disaster those are the coping strategies for the flood disaster risk reduction.
5.6 Flood Affected Sectors & damages in Medhya Charramani Mohan
year
Affected sector 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998
Agriculture 50 55 50 55 52 53 48 60 52 60
Livestock 20 23 25 21 9 28 20 11 15 15
Habitates 3 5 6 7 8 4 5 8 4 5
Health 3 2 5 4 6 8 9 2 1 5
Water and Sanitation 2 3 2 1 4 5 6 2 1 2
Social Institution 1 2 2 6 3 5 2 4 1 2
Infrastructure 21 10 10 6 18 7 10 13 26 11
Source: MDMR Control Room, 1996, BWDB, 1996; BBS: Munir-uz-zaman, 1990; CDL, 1992a; Kafilludin, 1988; ADB 1988a; Mahalanobis, 1927; USAID/OFDA 2008; - data not available, in Philip Gain(ed); Bangladesh Environment: Facing the 21st Centuryand own sources
CHAPTER 6: INDIGENOUS PERCEPTION AND PREDICTION
The people of Bangladesh depend on their local knowledge to cope with the extremes of the country’s climate such as flooding, floods, drought etc.
Floods are the greatest enemy of the coastal people. It has also been noticed that some people somehow survive and the entire human settlement were never completely eliminated even in the face of mightiest floods. Certain indigenous perception and prediction capacity possessed by the local people always helped them to anticipate and take necessary precautions. It was, therefore, imperative to understand these codes, or rather the hidden transcript of knowledge.
The people of Madhya Charramani Mohan have experience of all the major floods since 1988. But this people have gathered a huge quantity of experience because their previous generations lived in flood prone area. The experience builds the perception and perception influences the coping strategies.
In very recent times the people have experienced the 1988 flood, one of the highest and destructive floods in the history of Bangladesh. The survivors of the flood said, it was not a flood, it was kayamat (Doomsday). It was gazab (curse of Allah) for us. Some older who had seen the 1988 flood said: “we can’t compare this with the 1988 flood. In our life we did not see this type of flood and did not hear about it”. . All of these experiences about flood build a unique perception of flood to the inhabitants of Madhya Charramani Mohan.
6.1 Local Strategies To Predict Hazard:
The people of Charrmahon have some local strategies to predict flood. Predicting indicators of flood are-
I. Some people remarked that if more juar (water and air) flows from the south sky to the north sky in the month of Falgun and Chaitra and it is existed foggy weather, it is flooded in that year.
II. All of them remarked that if more juar (water and air) flows from the south sky to the north sky in the month of Joustha-Ashar and Shrabon, it is flooded within a week.
III. Some people remarked that if electricity electrifies in the north sky in the rainy season, they think, it is flooded in that year.
6.2 Which Are Indigenous Knowledge:
Those coping strategies to reduce flood risk and local strategies to predict flood are indigenous knowledge are described in below.
a) Raising bedstead on high by joining brick under bedstead foot and hanging and raising bedstead by bamboo and rope.
b) Reserving food (rice and flour) and vegetables. (pea, vetches, pumpkin,) and dry food (chira and muri)
c) Surrounding houses by fishing net to get security from snakes and insects.
d) Putting on a lamp at night to get security from snakes and insects.
e) Making a coracle by banana tree and using it to move anywhere and communicate. (local term vela and bura)
f) Reserving a boat to move anywhere and to communicate.
g) Making and reserving the portable hearth (earthen cooking stove, local term- chawha, chawka, agla ishal)
h) Reserving shoala (a stalk of jute used as fuel), doincha, dried cow dung, and others fuel on a scaffold.
i) Erecting houses on a raised platform.
j) Planting banana tree, bamboo and bushes around the houses which can protect soil erosion.
k) Transferring houses to secure place, (if there is any possibility of river erosion.)
l) Continuing educational and social institutions activities temporarily in a safe place during flood.
m) Transferring these institutions in a secure place.(If there is any possibility of absorbing in river)
n) Harvesting mature or semi matures crops before inundating and depending on boat and float, harvesting crops during inundating as soon as possible.
o) Merchandizing in hat-bazaar by using boat.
p) Potting corns in the pitchers of soil or aluminum.
q) Making a bamboo manchan for keeping live stocks in safe.
r) Keeping livestock either in own or others raised habitants.
s) Reserving merchandise in the safe houses or safe places near at hat-bazaar which are situated in raised platform and safe from inundating.
t) Trying to not expend the deposited money during flood.
u) Passing urine and toilet in a pot of soil inside houses.
v) Going to pass toilet and urine depending on a raft or a boat.
w) Sending pregnant women to relative houses especially to their father house.
x) Keeping the children on the high bedstead.
y) Observing the children closely.
z) Helping elder and disabled people to move anywhere and to go to pass urine and water.
aa) Simultaneously making a bamboo pull on the broken roads.
bb) The local strategies to predict flood these are-
A. If more juar (water and air) flows from the south sky to the north sky in the month of Falgun and Chaitra and it is existed foggy weather, it is flooded in that year.
B. If more juar (water and air) flows from the south sky to the north sky in the month of Joustha-Ashar and Shrabon, it is flooded with in a week.
C. If electricity electrifies in the north sky in the rainy season, it is flooded in that year.
All of the above coping strategies for flood risk reduction and the local strategies to predict hazard are IK. People learnt these from their progenitor. These are local and practicing for long time.
6.3 Which Are Not Indigenous Knowledge:
Those coping strategies to reduce flood risk are not indigenous knowledge are described in below.
a) Reserving extra tube well pipe to raise the suction head of the tube well above the rising water level.
b) Reserving and using halogen tablet and alum to refine water.
c) Reserving paracitamal, oral saline etc primary medicine.
These three strategies are external and people lernt these from N G Os and practicing recently. So these are not IK.
6.4 Transferability Of IK and practices
Most of IKs those are practiced in Madhya Charramani Mohan easily accessible and replicable to other areas and others IKs are not. Both easily and uneasily transferable IKs are described in below.
6.4.1 Easily transferable Iks:
Easily transferable IKs those, the people of Madhhya Charramani Mohan practice to cope with flood. These are
a) Raising bedstead on high by joining brick under bedstead foot and hanging and raising bedstead by bamboo and rope.
b) Reserving dried food (chira and muri) and vegetables. (pea, vetches, pumpkin- mistikumra and chalkumra)
c) Surrounding houses by fishing net to get security from snakes and insects.
d) Making a coracle by banana tree and using it to move anywhere and communicate. (local term vela and bura)
e) Making and reserving the portable hearth (earthen cooking stove, local term- chawha, chawka, agla ishal)
f) Reserving shoala (a stalk of jute used as fuel), doincha, dried cow dung, and others fuel on a scaffold.
g) Planting banana tree, bamboo and bushes around the houses which can protect soil erosion.
h) Continuing educational and social institutions activities temporarily in a safe place during flood.
i) Harvesting mature or semi matures crops before inundating and depending on boat and float, harvesting crops during inundating as soon as possible.
j) Potting corns in the pitchers of soil or aluminum.
k) Making a bamboo manchan for keeping live stocks in safe.
l) Keeping livestock in own raised habitant.
m) Passing urine and toilet in a pot of soil inside houses.
n) Going to pass toilet and urine depending on a raft or a boat.
o) Keeping the children on the high bedstead.
p) Observing the children closely.
q) Helping elder and disabled people to move anywhere and to go to pass urine and water.
r) Simultaneously making a bamboo pull on the broken roads.
s) The local strategies to predict flood these are-
A. If more juar (water and air) flows from the south sky to the north sky in the month of Falgun and Chaitra and it is existed foggy weather, it is flooded in that year.
B. If more juar (water and air) flows from the south sky to the north sky in the month of Joustha-Ashar and Shrabon, it is flooded with in a week.
C. If electricity electrifies in the north sky in the rainy season, it is flooded in that year.
These IKs and coping strategies need simple resources, and need not extra skill. Although for some practiced Iks such as making portable hearth and Making a bamboo manchan for keeping live stocks in safe need extra skill, anyone can learn easily those from others. All of these Iks cost effective from the perspective of money, labor and time.
6.4.2 Not easily transferable:
Some coping strategies and Iks are not easily transferable. These are
a) Reserving food (rice and flour)
b) Putting on a lamp at night to get security from snakes and insects.
c) Reserving a boat to move anywhere and to communicate.
d) Erecting houses on a raised platform.
e) Transferring houses to secure place, (if there is any possibility of river erosion.)
f) Transferring educational institutions in a secure place.(If there is any possibility of absorbing in river)
g) Merchandizing in hat-bazaar by using boat.
h) Keeping livestock in others raised habitants.
i) Trying to not expend the deposited money during flood.
j) Sending pregnant women to relative houses especially to their father house.
k) Reserving merchandise in the safe houses or safe places near at hat-bazaar which are situated in raised platform and safe from inundating.
These are not easily transferable. Some of these need extra resources and extra skill (such as- Transferring houses to secure place, keeping livestock in others raised habitants and reserving a boat to move anywhere and to communicate.) some these are more expensive (such as- Reserving food (rice and flour) Putting on a lamp at night to get security from snakes and insects. reserving a boat to move anywhere and to communicate. erecting houses on a raised platform.) some need much time and labor. All of these are fulfill impossible to adopt for the poor.
6.4.3 Five best practices:
The people of Madhhya Charramani Mohan practice various types of coping strategies for flood disaster risk reduction. Five best IKs of those are presented in below.
A. Planting banana tree, bamboo and bushes around the home:
Planting banana tree, bamboo and bushes (nol, dhol kolmi and kaisa- binna) around the home is one of the best practices those are practiced in Madhya Charramani Mohan .it is practiced to reduce life risk, habitant risk, livelihood risk, water and sanitation risk. It ales used to communicate during the flood. Raft that made of banana tree is used to harvest crops, to move anywhere, to pass urine and toilet during flood. Banana tree, bamboo, nol, dol kolmi and kaisa- binna protect houses from soil erosion. This practice is easily accessible and its cost is effective.
Case study: Dalima Begum
Fifty years old, Dalima Begum lives in Madhya Charramani Mohan with three daughters and one son for 15 years. She is a housewife and unable to sign her name. Her husband Nasir sheikh is not alive. Dalima has planted a large numbers of banana tree, nol, and kaisa-binna around her house. She has been planting those at this home since from the living here. Planting banana tree and bushes around the home is local knowledge to her and learnt it from the progenitors. During flood, she makes a raft of banana tee. If her habitant is inundated, she and her household members move anywhere by depending this raft, go to far to bring drinking water and go to pass urine and toilet. She is unable to make and use a boat. So this raft works as the main vehicle during flood. Dalima thinks that banana tree and bushes protect her homestead from soil erosion. When her home was in another char, she also planted these. She plants banana tree and bushes around the home not only for getting banana but also for depending on the raft and saving home from soil erosion during flood. If her banana trees and bushes are damaged by inundating with flood, she plants again these.
Transferring habitants before absorbing by river erosion:
Transferring habitants before its absorbing by river erosion is one of the best practices and one of the most useful techniques to cope with flood disaster. If any one transfers his habitant and transferable asset before being victim of river erosion, he will be able to reduce the risk of absorbing homestead and assets into river. This practice is very useful for the people of the monsoon flood prone area.
Case study: Abdus Salam
Sixty five years old, Abdus Salam Pramanik lives in Madhya Charramani Mohan with his wife, two daughters and two sons. He has been living here for ten years. He is a farmer. He can’t write his name. Now, his homestead is fifty miters away from erasing rive. He has already transferred his one house and transferable assets to other secure place. Another house is still here (present homestead that is fifty meters away from the river.). He thinks that for flowing air from the east to the west, river bank erosion is being reduced. For this reason, he has not transferred yet another house to the secure place. If river erosion is increased again, he will transfer it. He thinks, by transferring a house and assets, he will be able to reduce the risk of the river erosion. On the other hand, if he waits until Coming River close at his homestead, he will be abortive to reduce the risk. Sometimes, there is a possibility of absorbing home into river in the darkness of a night. Abdus Salam has observed river erosion for five times in his life. In every time, has adopted the same strategies to transfer houses before two- three days of the possibility of house absorbing into river. He also thinks that by more intensified streaming of tide from the north to the south, it is started to erase river bank. By flowing air from west to east, it makes western wave that flows from west to east starts the eastern bank erosion. On the other hand, by flowing air from east to west makes eastern wave that starts western bank erosion. Intensity of river bank erosion depends on the intensity of tide. Sometimes, 100-200 meters erase in a night and sometimes one meter erase in two- three nights. He informed that river bank erase in two times in a year in the juar of the month of Vadra and Asshin. (He learnt these from his progenitors and practicing since his boyhood)
B. Reserving portable hearth:
Reserving portable hearth and using it during flood is one of the most useful IKs. Landed hearth is inundated during flood. So there is no way of cooking food without portable hearth. All can’t prepare it but most women of Madhhya Charramani Mohan can prepare it. It needs not extra resources and its cost is effective to them.
Case study: Bahaton
Thirty five years old, Bahaton lives in Madhya Charramani Mohan with her husband named Mukhter Hussein, four sons and three daughters. She is a housewife and she can write her name only. Bahaton has living here for ten years. Every year is flooded here. So, landed hearth is inundated and no possibility of using it. For this, she prepares and reserves the portable hearth in every year that mainly made of soil. She keeps it on a manchan and cooks food by using reserving fuel. Although this portable hearth is made of soil, there also need a plate or a big fragment of the soil pitcher and a small bamboo basket. There need clay and jute fragment mixture to make a portable hearth. There also mixes cow dung with clay and jute fragment. After mixture she makes a hearth and keeps on a small basket and a plate. It is kept in the sunlight to dry it. Bahaton learnt it from her mother-aunts and grandmothers. She thinks that there is no need of extra skill or money to prepare it. So, it is accessible to others. She also remarked that without using of the portable hearth, cooking in every day is impossible in the rainy season.
D. Reserving pumpkin:
Reserving the mature pumpkins both chalkumra and mistikumra is a very useful technique to reduce the flood risk on the food and vegetables security. Flood creates food and vegetables scarcity during and after. So, reserving pumpkins for during and after flood reduce the flood risk on the food and vegetables security.
Case study: Rahima Khatun
Fifty years old, Rahima Khatun lives in Madhya Charramani Mohan with her husband named Abdus Sattar, one son and three daughters. She is a housewife. She passed class three. Rahima Khaton reserves the mature pumpkins both chalkumra and mistikumra to reduce the vegetable risk during flood. (Mistikumra and chalkumra are kept on the main mancha of the house that mancha is mainly made for keeping tank, suitcase, rice and other crops.) Going to hat-bazaar is very difficult during flood and Vegetables price is been so high. For this reason, she reserves the mature pumpkins (paka chalkumra and mistikumra) those are cultivated in her homestead. Generally, pumpkins are cultivated in the month of Joustha and Asshar. So, tit is easy to reserve these for total flood monsoon. Rahima Khatun remarked that she reserves 30-40 or more mistikuumras and chalkumras in every year those reduce the vegetables scarcity. If those pumpkins are mature fulfill, it is possible to reserve those for six month. So those can reduce the vegetables scarcity during flood and after flood.
E. Erecting bamboo bridge on the Broken roads:
Erecting a bamboo bridge on the broken road during flood is an effective technique to reduce the risk of communication. If the flood breaks a part of a road, there is no alternative technique to cross it without erecting a bamboo bridge on the road.
Case study: community bondage
The community people of Madhhya Charramani Mohan erect a bamboo bridge on a broken road by collecting money from the community. To erect this bridge, they don’t take any fund of the govt or local govt or NGOs. Sometimes they erect it without collecting money. Then one person donates bamboos for the bridge body and another person donates wood or bamboos for the pillars of the bridge and the others help to erect it. Such a bridge is erected road near at Umarpur Union Parisad and Madhya Charramani Mohan high school. If anyone wants to come to Union Parisad, he/she has to come by crossing this bridge. There is no fund of GO or NGOs in this bridge erecting. In this year, a local school teacher named Helal BSC donates bamboo for the bridge body and another local person named Rafik donates wood for the pillars of the bridge the others erected the bridge by their labors. Because of being Community Bridge, there is no tax to cross it..
CHAPTER 7: RISK AND COPING STRATEGIES
7.1 The main hazard of the study area:
Flood is the main hazard of Madhhya Charramani Mohan. The respondents of four FGDs informed that flood is the main hazard of their locality and it occurs in every year and its intensity is mostly dangerous.
7.2 Flood risk and coping strategies for risk reduction:
Flood poses risk their lives, livelihoods, households, health, food security, social institutions, and water and sanitation. It also poses extra risk on female, child, elder people, and person with disability. The people of Madhhya Charramani Mohan adopt some special strategies to cope with flood.
Various types of flood risk and coping strategies for the risk reduction are described in below.
7.3 Flood risk on life:
a) Habitants inundate with flood.
b) There is no assurance of life during flood.
c) It is difficult to move anywhere during flood.
d) Various diseases are being increased.
e) It is difficult to cook food.
f) Fear of snakes and insects is increased.
7.3.1. Strategies for risk reduction of life:
a) If their houses inundate with flood, they keep their bedstead on high by joining brick under bedstead foot and hanging bedstead by bamboo and rope.
b) They reserve food and vegetables. ( pea, vetches, pumpkin,) and dry food (chira and muri)
c) They surrounded houses by fishing net or put on a lamp at night to get security from snakes and insects.
d) They use boat or coracle. ( local term vela and bura)
e) They reserve primary medicine ( paracitamole and oral saline)
f) They reserve portable hearth (earthen cooking stove, local term- chaha, chawka, agla ishal)
g) They reserve shoala (a stalk of jute used as fuel), doincha, dried cow dung, and others fuel on a scaffold.
7.3.2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
Any one can live safely by following these techniques and mitigate disaster risk. So, these techniques are effective enough to reduce of flood risk on life.
7.4 Risk on habitants:
a) Houses are inundated.
b) If houses are inundated, soil is erased into low land.
c) There is a possibility of absorbing houses in river by erasing of river bank.
7.4.1 Coping strategies for risk reduction:
a) They build houses on a raised platform.
b) They plant banana tree, bamboo and bushes around the houses which can protect soil erosion.
c) If there is any possibility of river erosion, they transfer houses to secure place.
7.4. 2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
If any adopts these techniques, he will be able to reduce the rick. Otherwise, there will be damaged much of habitants.
7.5 Risk on food security:
a) Flood creates food scarcity during flood and after flood.
b) It creates cooking and fuel scarcity.
7.5.1 Coping strategies for risk reduction:
a) They (Some of them) reserve rice or flour to reduce risk (for during and after).
b) Most of them reserve chira- muri etc dry food and mature pumpkin (mistikumra- chakumra).
c) They reserve portable hearth (earthen cooking stove, local term- chaha, chawka, agla ishal)
d) They reserve shoala (a stalk of jute used as fuel), doincha, dried cow dung, and others fuel on a scaffold.
7.5.2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
If any follows these, he/she is been able to reduce food security risk during flood and he is not been in under eating and not in starvation. So, these are effective.
7.6 Risk for social and educational institutions:
a) School, madrasah, moktoband mosque etc are submerged.
b) There is a possibility of absorbing these in river by erasing river bank.
7.6.1 Coping strategies for risk reduction:
a) They continue these institutions activities temporarily in a safe place during flood.
b) If there is any possibility of absorbing in river, they transfer these institutions in a secure place.
7.6.2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
By taking these techniques, these institutions activities are continued and institutions been in safe. Otherwise, there is a possibility of damaging by river bank erosion and activities can be closed.
7.7 Risk on livelihood:
a) Farming crops are inundated.
b) Farmers are unable to cultivate.
c) Flood creates scarcity of corns.
d) Live stocks are attacked by various types of water transmitted diseases.
e) Roads are inundated during flood. So, businessmen can’t merchandize.
7.7.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction:
There are two types of risk reduction strategies. Such as
a) Strategies for immediate risk reduction.
b) Strategies for long term risk reduction.
7.7.2 Strategies for immediate risk reduction:
a) Farmers harvest mature or semi mature crops before inundating and depending on boat and float, harvest crops during inundating as soon as possible.
b) Depending on boat, businessmen merchandize in hat-bazaar.
7.7.3 Effectiveness of these techniques:
Although, by adopting these techniques, farmers and businessmen can reduce their occupational risk, these are not effective enough. Farmers can’t cultivate and businessmen can’t merchandize easily.
7.7.4 Strategies for long term rick reduction:
a) Farmers pot corns in the pitchers of soil or aluminum.
b) For keeping live stocks in safe, they make bamboo manchan or keep those either in own or others raised habitants.
c) Businessmen reserve their merchandise in their safe houses or safe places near at hat-bazaar which are situated in raised platform and safe from inundating.
d) They try to not expend their deposited money during flood.
7.7.5 Effectiveness of these techniques:
These are effective enough to cope with flood. By adopting these techniques, farmers and businessmen can resume their occupation after flood.
7.8 Extra risk for women:
a) They face urine and toilet passing problems.
b) Pregnant women face eating and drinking problems.
c) They face travail problems.
7.8.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction:
a) They pass urine and toilet in a pot soil inside houses.
b) They go to pass toilet and urine depending on raft or boat.
c) Pregnant women are sent to relative house especially to their father house.
7.8.2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
Adopting techniques are effective enough to cope with flood for a woman. If her house is inundated, going at relative safe home is the most suitable for her. If she stays at a relative house, there is no risk for her. So, the techniques are effective.
7.9 Extra risk for children:
a) There is a possibility of child death during flood by sinking into water.
7.9.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction:
a) They keep their children on high bedstead.
b) They closely observe their children.
7.9.2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
Although anyone adopts these techniques, there is also a possibility of child death by slipping down from the bedstead into water.
7.10 Extra risk for elders and the persons with disability:
a) Moving anywhere is very difficult for elders and the persons with disability during flood.
b) They can’t pass urine and toilet without helves of others during flood.
c) Sometimes, they pass urine and toilet on their dresses.
7.10.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction:
a) They pass urine and toilet in a soil made pot inside the house.
b) Others (adults) help them to move anywhere and to go to pass urine and water.
7.10.2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
Elder and disabled people are unable to move anywhere and pass urine and toilet without help of others. So, these techniques are effective enough to reduce risk.
7.11 Risk on health:
a) Flood creates various water transmitted diseases like diarrhea, dysentery and fever etc.
7.11.1 Coping strategy for flood risk reduction:
a) They reserve paracitamal, oral saline etc primary medicine.
7.11.2 Effectiveness of this technique:
This technique reduces risk but not effective enough to cope with water transmitted diseases. Sometimes, people are attacked by dangerous water transmitted diseases like typhoid, and then such primary medicine is not effective.
7.12 Risk on drinking water:
a) Tube well is inundated during flood.
b) Virus mixes with water.
7.12.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction:
a) They reserve extra tube well pipe. When tube well is inundated they raise the suction head of the tube well above the level of rising water by adjusting extra pipe.
b) They reserve halogen tablet and alum to refine water.
7.12.2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
By adopting these techniques, they can drink pure water. So these are effective enough.
7.13. Risk on sanitation:
a) Toilet is inundated during flood.
7.13.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction:
a) They pass urine and toilet inside house in a soil pot and remove later too far.
b) Depending on a raft, they go to pass urine and toilet.
7.13.2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
By adopting these, water is polluted. So these are not effective enough to reduce flood risk on sanitation.
7.14 Risk on communication:
a) During the flood, all the roads are inundated it becomes difficult to move from the houses for daily essential activities.
b) Some roads are broken during flood.
7.14.1 Coping strategies for flood risk reduction:
a) They move anywhere and communicate during flood by raft or boat.
b) They simultaneously make a bamboo pull on the broken roads.
7.14.2 Effectiveness of these techniques:
By adopting these strategies, anyone can move anywhere. So, these are effective enough to cope with communication risk during flood.
7.15 Others help to cope with flood:
The respondent remarked that their relatives, neighbors and others people of the community help them by financial support, food aid, labor and advice to cope with flood disaster. These helves depend on the abilities of relatives, neighbors and others people of the community.
CHAPTER 8: COPING WITH FLOOD
8.1 Social Coping with Flood:
Several social mechanisms are important to cope with flood. Kinship Organization: The Kinship organization in Madhya Charramani Mohan is both strong and weak at the same time. In the mainland, the ties in groups are usually deeply rooted and strong; as such groups settle and live in a particular place over generations. Whereas, in coastal areas most of the inhabitants are unsettle people who move from place to place and hence their kin ties becomes weak and the likelihood of conflicts between them are likely to be present. On the other hand, since they are in very vulnerable condition, in times of crisis their kin ties are strengthened and mobilized to tide over the crisis.
In case of flood especially some people try to take shelter in the mainland. They go to the mainland with their family after they become sure about the flood. After the flood the relatives from mainland come over the island to take the information about the relatives of island. They provide some help. If the relatives were also the victims than it wouldn’t be their fault if they don’t come the see the relatives of Madhya Charramani Mohan, otherwise it is a great fault for the close relatives.
Samaj: The neighborhood is an important social resource during any type of disaster crisis. Adnan (1990) refers to the social institution of the community group known as samaj, which lie beyond the family and the kin group. They serve to coordinate activities of individual households which generally are unrelated by kinship ties. Households belonging to particular samaj have reciprocal rights and obligations and are expected to cooperate with each other at times of critical events and crisis situations.
During flood the samaj leaders play roles to aware people to take shelter in flood centre and some people go to the samaj leader’s houses for safety because their houses are stronger in structure. After the disaster the samaj leaders get involve with the relief works and they try to unite people to work together.
Samaj also control the division of labor. Men and women do different kind of works during the flood. Men try to protect house, agricultural products, fishing materials and the domestic animals. On the other hand, women work inside the house.
Power Structure: The powerful landowner “Jotedars” establishes tenant farmers for grabbing and cultivating their land. Strong patron-client relationships exist wherein a landlord becomes the patron and his tenant farmers his clients. The patronage provided by the jotedars includes sharecropping land, wage labor, money lending and political protection. This people also play a great role during the disasters such as flood. After the flood most of the dwellers become homeless. At that time this power holders give some loans to them that loan ensure the existence of the dwellers but at the long run this loan takes the land or it makes the dwellers bound to sell their labor at a very low price.
8.2 Economic coping with flood:
Agriculture: Agriculture is the main economic activity in Madhya Charramani Mohan. The special kind of soil and climatic pattern make special kind of cropping pattern. Farmers use various cropping patterns depending on the soil salinity level. Through experience and crop susceptibility to salinity, farmers choose and use cropping pattern. Aus-Aman-fallow cropping pattern follows in general. In rainy season the salinity in the land become low or absent so in that period peasants cultivate Ropa, Aman but in the dry season it is not possible because salinity become prominent in the soil. So most of the land remains uncultivated in the dry season. In winter Robi crops are produced.
Means of Cropping: As in other parts of Bangladesh, cultivation of the Madhya Charramani Mohan is usually done by hired labor, through sharecropping arraignments or against harvest/cash contracts, depending on the size of the land under cultivation. Therefore, the system under which the cultivation of crops is carried out can be broadly divided into three different categories:
a. Bodilla= Harvesting of crops by hiring daily wage labor;
b. Baga= Sharing of crops has two systems:
1. Robi crops- Landowners get 1/3 of the total products and the farmer will get 2/3, if farmer bear all the costs. But if the landowners bear the cost of seeds than he will get ½ of the total products and the peasant will get ½ and the farmer have to be bear the other expenses.
2. Paddy- The landowners will get ½ of the products by not giving any amount of money for the expenses. There is another system in which farmer has to give some money to the landowner to get land for cultivation. This is locally called howlat. In that case the landowner is bound to give the half of the expenses and the products will be divided into two equal parts.
c. Bondok= A sort of contract, which can be divided into two subsystems:
I. Rehani Bondok- In this system, one can get certain amount of land. The landowners not have to pay back all the money to get his land back.
II. Nogod Bondok- In this system, the landowners have to pay back all the money to get his land back.
Cultivation Strategies: In Madhya Charramani Mohan cultivation strategies mainly centered on Bengali calendar and their indigenous crop calendar.
Crop Calendar – In Ashar-Srabon the people produce Rajashail and Amanshail. Madhya Charramani Mohan produces paddy once in a year. In Falgun-Chaitra they produce robi crops. They called the season as Sudin (good days, they also called winter as sudin). It is because the weather in the season is more comfortable than in the summer. In summer they always got fear about the water. The whole char goes under about the water. The whole, char goes under water when there is joar (high tide). In Fulgun and Chaitra they produce green papaya, sweet potato, soya bin, green bean, lady’s finger, lal shak. They cannot produce cauliflower, cabbage and carrot because the land is salty. In rainy season they produce cucumber, ribbed gourd, chichinga, green bean. The banana can also be produced but they don’t try it commercially. They send their products to the different markets of Lakshmipur district.
Table 20: Crop Calendar
Bengali Month Season Crops
Ashar-Srabon Borsha/Rainy Rajashail, Amanshail, Vegetable
Falgun-Chaitra Bosonto/Spring Robi crops, green papaya, sweet potato, Borbati, wheat, lady’s finger, Watermelon, vegetable.
Baishakh-Jaistha Grishmo/Summer Cucumber, ribbed gourd, chichinga, green bean.
Source: Own data, 2009-2010.
Constraints of Agriculture: A number of factors constrain the agricultural productivity in the char areas.
Environmental Factors
Drought
Scarcity of Sweet water
Impeded Drainage
Soil Salinity
Biological Factors
Socio-economic Factors
Absence of salt tolerant crop cultivation, weed infestation
Free grazing animals
High labor cost
Big land ownership, unfavorable land tenure
Inadequate market facilities
8.3 Occupational Coping with Flood:
Fishing: There are three tiers within the fishing community. The first tier consists of owners of the boats and the businessman who buy the fishes in a special form. The second tier is the leader of fishing boat. The general fishermen who do not have boat or jal (Net) can be called the third tier. They just sell their labor.
The businessman may own several boats or may not. But he is involved with dadon (one kind of deed).. In this special deal the businessmen give money in advance to the fishermen on the condition of getting fish in exchange. But these people may take dadon from other businessmen of big cities like Dhaka, Chittagong and Narayangonj. These dadonkari (the men who give money in advance in exchange of fish) give dadon to the leader of fishermen group. This group is the primary unit of fishing business.
Har= It is the place to set jal (net). The ownership of har depends on possession. Generally they follow the tradition. In Madhya Charramani Mohan there may be 100 har. One individual can bring a har under his possession or up to 10 fishermen may own har in share. The owners of a har may set their nets or they can rent their har to the other fishermen.
Boat= The boat is the most important component. Those who have boats are in a suitable position. If they do not use the boats for fishing business they can let their boats to other fisherman on daily basis or season basis. In that case the renters have to bear every expense.
Jal (net) = Fishermen use different kinds of nets to catch different kinds of fish. Some nets are very cheap while some are very costly. If the team members have not their own net they can rent it.. Women of Madhya Charramani Mohan make nets.
Table 21: Different Types of Net and their Uses
Net Using purpose
Chadi jal to catch hilsha fish
Bindi/Badha Jal to catch shrimp
Net/Moshurer Jal to catch lobster
Thela Jal to catch fish staying not in deep water
Chonga jal another kind of net jal
Jhai Jal to catch fish from ponds.
Source: Own data, 2009-2010.
Majhi= The leaders of a group of fishermen is called majhi. He leads the group. In general there may be 20 fishermen in a group. The businessmen make deeds with the majhi. Generally the experienced one will be the majhi.
Jele= The fishermen must form a group if they want to catch fish. They get an amount of money from the majhi for a season. If the majhi wants he can pay full amount of money in the beginning of the season. Generally majhi pay them in installment. When the season is over some of them find them in debt. In every season they fall into deep debt crisis and it is going on.
Fisherman’s Calendar: Fisherman’s calendar generally consists of fifteen days between full moon and new moon. The fish can be found more in Ekadoshi, Dadoshi and Troeiodoshi. If there is no fish in these three days than certainly there will not be much fish in the other days of the month. If there is a flood in the Katal or in the Purnimar Pichaboli or in the Amabossar agaboli then the flood will be devastating.
Table 22: Fishermen’s Ponjica
Name of the Day Day Characteristics
Protibot 1st day the joar is more powerful than the day before
Ditia 2nd day the joar is more stronger than the day before
Tritia 3rd day the joar is most powerful than in the normal period (more fish will be caught than usual). This is called (Chan Rat)
Choturthi 4th day the joar is decreasing.
Ponchomy 5th day do
Sosthi 6th day do
Soptomi 7th day do
Astomi 8th day do
Nobomi 9th day do
Doshomi 10th day the joar is least than in the normal periods.
Ekadoshi 11th day the tidal wave is seen much more than
Dadoshi 12th day the joar is rising
Troadoshi 13th day do
Choturdoshi 14th day do
Purnima 15th day the joar is stronger. Possibility of getting fish lowest degree.
Source: Own data, 2009-2010.
8.4 Material and Technological copping with Flood:
Certain technological copping pattern is related to the building strategies of a house. Description of a House: Almost all the houses are Kurre ghar (the house made of bamboo and other low cost materials). There are some houses which are called tiner bari (the houses are made of tin). In such a case the wall of a house is made of wood and bamboo and the roof is made of tin. There is no building in Madhya Charramani Mohan.
Every house has two rooms. The cooking place is in outside of the rooms. Sometimes there is a separate room. Most of the family has use a corner of an open area with a cover by bera (bamboo made fence). There may be a bed or hot. If there is no bed then there will be a carpet. In Kurrer ghor (hut) there will be a rope. This rope works as a stand for cloths.
Size of a House: If it is Kurre ghar the size will be 7-10 haths (hands), 7 haths in long and 10 haths in width. If it is a government built house then the size will be 7/12 haths. If anyone has money he can furnish his house with bed and baranda.
The Materials for Building a House:
Toal- It is made of the chal (shin) of a coconut tree. It takes 17-19 days to make rope from coconut tree. This rope is very strong.
Bash (Bamboo) - At least 70-100 bamboo is needed to built a house. The bamboo work as pillars to hold a roof and it gives the structure of the house.
Pala- It is usually a guri (trunks) of keora tree or Shirish tree. It is used for the base of roof and the pillar.
Nara- It comes from paddy. When the ripe paddy is taken the plants are called nara. Generally these are dried up. It is used in fence.
Building Process of a House: The man who builds the house is called choial. Choial with his companion who are usually called Bodoilla (the day laborer) build the house. It takes four decimals land to build a house of 9 haths and 6 haths (1 hath= 18 inches).
To build a house one must at first build Vita (the base of the house). The height of a vita depends on where the house will be built. The highest height will be 3-4 hath high. Almost all of the houses are made of toal, bash, pala and nara. There are some tiner bari.
8.5 Peoples Response to the Flood Centre:
Following the 1988’s floods, the government (of Pakistan and later Bangladesh) built 238 flood shelters in four greater coastal districts. Later on, in the 1980s, the Red Crescent Society and other NGOs built 62 more shelters. Now government is planning to set up more shelters in several places. There is no flood centre in Madhya Charramani Mohan. There is a shelter situated one kilometer far away in Moju Choudhurir Hat.
Problems in Shelters: The most common problem is the lack of latrines and drinking water. Other problems are included crowding, lack of privacy, no light and no food.
The dwellers usually do not go to the flood centre for various reasons:
The position of flood centre is not so suitable for the people as the communication between the flood centers and population centre is very bad.
The people don’t want to go to outside the house in the time of disaster. They try to save their home. The dwellers are afraid during their absence, their houses would be looted and people do not leave their homes until there was absolute certainty that a flood will hit them.
The people of this area are very much conservative. The practice of purdah is much stronger and men are reluctant to take their women to the shelters even if this is now dimming.
Usually the rich and people of higher status do not go to the flood center as they do not want to stay with the lower status people. They try to stay in their house or go to another place where the same status people stay.
CHAPTER 9: SUMMARY & CONCLUSION
Bangladesh has a coastal belt of about 710 km long from Raimongal River to the west and Teknaf to the south east. Almost entire coastal belt is exposed to the potential danger of flood.. Madhya Charramani Mohan is one of the most affected areas of flood.
The vulnerable people of Madhya Charramani Mohan posses unique localized knowledge and practices which developed through a cumulative experience that constitute a coping strategies in the face of natural disasters, flood.
There are many variables affecting the types and degree of indigenous perception and predicting knowledge of flood.
The people can classify flood in two ways: on the basis of intensity and on the basis of characteristics and seasons.
Dwellers of Madhya Charramani Mohan possess a unique way to predict the flood. Predicting indicators of flood depends on several factors. Their unique way of prediction of flood does not contradict the scientific logic. Moreover theses predicting indicators have a solid scientific ground.
The dwellers of Madhya Charramani Mohan have developed a process of innovation and adaption to a variety of cropping strategies and techniques, which are adjusted with the ecology, economy and socio-cultural system.
Dwellers of this kind of vulnerable area in the sense of natural disaster have the knowledge that flood cannot be mitigated fully so they have to live with it. So they build unique life styles. They live their life always facing the natural disaster one after another. They have developed a art for the management of the crisis of everyday and they take some strategies just before, during and after the flood. They live with flood so they have adjusted their economic life: agricultural, fishing, etc. And, they have developed a cheap and unique based housing system. Their social organization also supports this adaptive life pattern.
Besides their life they take some specific coping strategies just before the flood, during the flood and in post-flood situation.
People don’t want to take shelter in the flood centre. They do not have enough motivation for it and they have no such cultural practices for a long time. The numbers of flood centre is also inadequate. It cannot provide shelter to all of the population.
The institutional planning are not fitted in people’s perception, orientation and cultural practices. Following the prescriptions of outside cannot provide the long term solution. So actual initiatives of government and non-government organizations has to be people’s perspective. Indigenous knowledge has shown that it has a great potentiality in this regard.
What should be done:
The people of the study area practice different kinds of indigenous knowledge and coping strategies for flood risk reduction and predicting indicators of the flood. Those indigenous knowledge and coping strategies and predicting indicators of the flood should be announced in others monsoon flood prone area of Bangladesh. Besides those indigenous knowledge and coping strategies and predicting indicators of the flood, some coping strategies should also be published in the monsoon flood prone area of Bangladesh. These strategies are-
a) Toilet should be built on a raised platform above the flood level or 2-3 slabs of latrine should be reserved for the rainy season to adjust with the old slabs during flood.
b) Children should be kept in the playpen or it should be made a fence around the bedstead.
c) Floating platform should be used for cultivation of vegetables and plant of crops during flood.
d) Cucumber, ladies finger and others fast growing vegetables should be planted during flood (if homestead is not inundated) and after flood.
The techniques to promote these IKs and coping strategies:
Respondent recommendation:
These IKs and coping strategies should be promoted to others area by announcing in mosque, moktob, school, college and madrasah.
Researcher recommendation:
These IKs and coping strategies could be promoted by postering in school, college, madrasah, hat- bazaar and any other populous place.
Potential stakeholder:
Respondent recommendation:
Imam of mosque (bishop), teacher, NGO representative and member of disaster management committee could be the potential stakeholders for the promotion of the IKs and coping strategies.
Researcher recommendation:
Besides above persons, upozela agriculture official and worker, family planning official and worker, village police and community elite person can also contribute to promote the IKs and coping strategies to others area.
Respondent recommendation:
Mike and textbook could be used as communication materials for the promotion of the IKs and coping strategies.
GLOSSARY
Aman: Bengali cultivating season usually used when referring to paddy planted during the monsoon and harvested during November to December.
Azan: call for prayer.
Ashwin: mid September to mid October.
Bari: containing 3-4 huts.
Bodoilla: day laborer.
Boishakh: mid April to mid May.
Borga: share cropping.
Borsha: the rainy season.
Char: a mid-channel land that periodically emerges from the river bed as results of accretion.
Choura: people living in char village.
Choki: large wooden bed.
Choitro: mid March to mid April.
Chula: traditional ground cooking place.
Falgun: mid February to mid March.
Ghor: house.
Gushti: lineage.
Guchchagram: cluster village.
Jotedar: a big land owner.
Kamla: day laborer.
Kartik: mid October to mid November.
Khas: unused government owned land.
Magh: mid January to mid February.
Matial: day laborer.
Poush: mid December to mid January.
Samaj: an informal village association based on neighborhood or religious sects.
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APPENDIX
List of collecting structured research information
Madhya Charramani Mohan:
Geographical features.
Historical background.
Habitat pattern.
Settlement pattern.
Cultural practices.
Living and livelihood:
Means of production.
Sources of income.
Cropping pattern.
Occupational pattern.
Social organization:
Types of social organization.
Roles of social organization.
Structure of kinship.
Social stratification.
Religion:
Beliefs in supernatural power.
Ritual practices.
Festivals.
Political organization:
Nature of power structure.
Hierarchy of political authority.
Village factions.
Impacts of politics on char.
CHECK LIST
Put the tick (√) on appropriate answer:
1> Do you see any flood?
A. yes. B. no.
2> Have you experience several types of flood?
A. yes. B. no.
3> Can you predict before flood?
A. yes. B. no.
4> Did you collect this knowledge from previous generation?
A. yes. B. no.
5> Have you got any institutional training about coping with flood?
A. yes. B. no.
6> Is the contribution of village authority in flood management enough? A. yes. B. no.
7> Do you have any flood centre?
A. yes. B. no.
8> Did you ever go to flood centre?
A. yes. B. no.
9> Do you get relief after flood?
A. yes. B. no.
10> When did you get relief? A. yes. B. no.
11> Was the relief enough for you?
A. yes. B. no.
12> Have you loss any family member in flood?
A. yes. B. no.
13> Do you feel more helpless after flood?
A. yes. B. no.
14> Is the NGO’s roles satisfactory?
A. yes. B. no.
15> Do you agree with the obvious necessity of government intervention?
A. yes. B. no.
Map: Lakshimipur District & Research area.
Pictures:
Field flooded by rain
River bank Erosion
Bathing in polluted water
Earthing stove for copping with flood
Lossing of Agricultural Land
Flood Damaged Road & Erected Bamboo Bridge.
Plantation for coping with flood
